Best and Desirable Practices of Science Teaching: A Brief
Overview
(Under development; last revised 11/04/2009, cjw.)
by Carl J. Wenning, Education Specialist
Physics Teacher Education Program
Illinois State University
It is expected (perhaps unreasonably?) that some, perhaps, many of the following teaching practices have been touched on in your C&I 212, 214, and 216 courses, as well as you PSY 110 and 215 courses. The general practices of science teaching are based both on research (Best Practices) and experience (Desirable Practices). They are stated here as a review, or at least as a statement of what it is that you should know upon entering this course.
BEST PRACTICES: The following pedagogical practices can be said to be truly best practice according to How Students Learn. The empirical evidence that supports their use is substantial.
- Engaging Resilient Preconceptions: Students do not come into the classrooms as "tabula rasa" (blank slates). They come to class with prior false conceptions and these pre-conceptions must be directly confronted and eliminated before correct learning can take place. Failing to eliminate pre-conceptions often result in students failing to learn new ideas, or in mixing the new knowledge with prior conceptions resulting in a hybrid model of the concept.
- Organizing Knowledge around Core Concepts: Also known as constructivism. If students are to gain a deep understanding of physical phenomena, they must construct understanding from experience. This implies that classrooms should be centers of experiential learning. Science instruction that is based on "teaching by telling" is not effective. Students quickly forget what they have memorized, and are ineffective at transferring what they have learned to new situations. What students know about their own knowledge, and how they response to self assessment are critical in developing long-term student comprehension (providing a foundation of factual knowledge and conceptual understanding); and
- Supporting Metacognition and Self Regulation (teaching strategies that will help students take control of their learning).
Not included in the above list, but should have been, is Cooperative Learning, the process of having students work together under a specific framework for achieving a common goal that cannot be achieved without the involvement of all students.
In general, experience has shown that the so called DESIREABLE
PRACTICES
of teaching (e.g., believed by the majority of teacher educators to be associated
with improved student learning, but for which only a limited - not overwhelming - amount of empirical research evidence
exits) take many forms, but the underlying principles usually include the following:
- Engaging Students in Active Learning: Active
learning (I) and active
learning (II) Students learn best when they are intellectually engaged.
“Students involved in doing things & thinking about the things they
are doing” is one definition of active learning.
- Encourages Student-Teacher Contact: Students tend to learn
best when interfacing with the teacher. (This is part of the reason why home
schooled children tend to do so well.) The more student-teacher contact time
there
is, the better the student learning. The contact referred to, however, is
two-way. One-way contact time does not count.
- Setting High Expectations: Also known as the Pygmalion
effect. Student who are held to high expectations tend to outperform those
for
whom expectations are lower. Many times expectations are not directly stated,
but expectations are more often than not clearly expressed through the actions
and attitudes of a teacher. "I have a bunch of low-performing students;
I wouldn't ask them to attempt such a difficult task."
- Providing and Receiving Prompt Feedback: The learning
process is best facilitated through two way communication. Important in this
process
is the two-way street sometimes called Student Assessment-as-Learning. That
is, not every evaluative interaction between a teacher and a student is
a
basis of the student's grade. Assessments of student performance are used
not only to assign grades, but to improve student performance. Unsatisfactory
work is returned to the student for improvement. A student's scores can be
improved by appropriate revision and resubmission of "unsatisfactory"
course projects, so long as all conditions and deadlines are met. Consistent
with the Student Assessment-as-Learning policy, students are encouraged
to
write drafts of essays, submit them for review by the course instructor,
and make revisions based upon the instructor's written comments. Note: The
Student
Assessment-as-Learning policy does not apply to examinations and reading
quizzes.
- Accommodating
Student Learning Styles: Different students
have different learning styles. Some students learn best by seeing; others
by hearing; others by direct interaction with matter. It is important for
teachers to provide multiple avenues to learning so that different learning
styles can be addressed.
- Teaching in a Way That is Consistent with Student Development: Teachers
need to realize that they must teach within the "zone of proximal development."
That is, teachers shouldn't expect students to learn things that are beyond
their ability. For instance, abstract reasoning shouldn't be expected from
students who have not progressed past the point of concrete reasoning ability.
- Including Real-World Applications in the Learning Process:
Students need to understand the value of what they are learning.
If they see no value, the motivation to learn is diminishingly small. Teaching
in such a way as to include real-world applications helps with the problem
of "transfer" in which students apply what they have learned to situations
outside the classroom.
- Multiple
Intelligences: There are several types of intelligences that
persons possess, and they are not all possessed to the same degree. For instance,
some students have great intellectual skills, but poor social skills. Others
might possess great motor skills, music skill, or language skills. Teachers
should make every effort to assess student performance using various types
of skills that they can bring to bear.
- Learning Environments:
Learning environments play a great role in student learning. By something
as simple as a grading policy, a teacher can turn a classroom into a highly
competitive atmosphere where students compete for the best grades, or one
that this highly cooperative in which a student cannot succeed unless his
or her peers do likewise. Classroom management skills also plays a great role
in maintaining the appropriate classroom atmosphere that is conducive to student
learning.
- Cooperative
Learning: If there is one thing that can be pointed to in education
and said, "this works," it's cooperative learning. Cooperative learning
is not to be confused with group learning. There are a great number of differences.
- Additional Elements of Effective Pedagogy:
- Strong emphasis on interaction with phenomena:
- Clear and explicit linkage of representations to phenomena: Study
shows that multiple representations of physical phenomena are crucial
to an individual developing a comprehensive "expert" understanding
of those
- Have student evaluate alternative hypotheses: If students are to
come to think and act like scientists, then they must be fully engaged
in the scientific process.
- Goals of tasks are conceptual and conceptual means are required
to accomplish the tasks: In the end, the most useful
information to a student will be a conceptual understanding...
- Tasks must be reduced to a size that is more manageable for novice
students to handle: It's hard for students...
- Students must spend time on task if they are to learn anything.
This includes using time well, and this requires effective time management
skills. Homework helps to increase time on task.
Science education research has contributed several additional
key findings very relevant to science teaching and learning:
- Critical Thinking:
This can be variously defined, but nearly all definitions focus
upon the ideas that critical thinking is “reasonable reflective thinking
that is focused on deciding what to do and what to believe” OR “interpreting,
analyzing or evaluating information, arguments or experiences with a set of
reflective attitudes, skills, and abilities to guide our thoughts, beliefs
and actions” OR “examining the thinking of others to improve our
own”. It is believe that active learning is best used to promote critical
thinking. Critical thinking tasks include: Identifying key definitions, Identifying
ambiguity, Identifying variables, Formulating questions, Defining issue or
problem, Classifying information, Sequencing information, Recognizing patterns,
and Determining credibility among many other things. Critical thinking is
best promoted with the use of active learning.
- Less is More:
This is phrase represents the "depth versus breadth" controversy.What
are the "costs" of covering subject matter in breadth at the expense
of depth, and visa versa?
For information on some of the above areas, see Chickering, A.W. & Gamson,
Z.F. (1991) Applying the Seven Principles for Good Practice in Undergraduate
Education. New Directions for Teaching and Learning, 47. San Francisco, CA:
Jossey-Bass.