Electronic Journal Entries

(Last updated May 12, 2003)

Date: February 5, 2003
Title: Pedagogical Content Knowledge Taxonomies
Author: William R. Veal and James G. MaKinster
Source: Electronic Journal of Science Education - V3 N4 - June 1999
Review: This article is about the combination of pedagogical practices and content knowledge into a singular method. Science classes were once run with an overemphasis of content knowledge. In the nineties teaching practices changed to be more focused on pedagogy. Unfortunately, there has been an imbalance between the two. This article attempts to correct this problem by implementing pedagogical content knowledge taxonomies. The authors noted that by having prospective teachers learn content in the context of teaching, the overall quality of standards increases. “The key to distinguishing the knowledge base of teaching lies at the intersection of content and pedagogy, in the capacity of a teacher to transform the content knowledge he or she possesses into forms that are pedagogically powerful and yet adaptive to the variations in ability and background presented by the students (p. 15).” The article outlined methods in developing taxonomy of pedagogical content knowledge for use by teachers. They have outlined and explained three different types of taxonomies; general PCK, domain specific PCK, and topic specific PCK. Finally, they talked about the implications for science teacher education.

Title: Realism versus Constructivism: Which is a More Appropriate Theory for Addressing the Nature of Science in Science Education?
Author: Brian Campbell
Source:
In his article, “Realism versus Constructivism: Which is a More Appropriate Theory for Addressing the Nature of Science in Science Education?” Brian Campbell addresses education from both a constructivist as well as a realist approach. It is obvious through the reading of the article that he agrees with the more constructivist approach. He states that it is possible to more accurately capture the nature of science as a constructivist rather than a realist. Importantly, he defines what he feels a constructivist’s instruction would be like, and that it is “hailed as a great improvement over traditional lecture/textbook instruction.” Brian Campbell then breaks into the nature of science by comparing the realist and constructivist approaches. In order to support the constructivist viewpoint, he asks the playful question, “What do scientists actually do?” He shows that scientists discover patterns. He explains that there is no one-way to do science and that there is no single scientific method. Without the students’ development of this pattern recognition ability, they will have difficulty becoming scientists. In the realist approach, there is a strong emphasis on memorization of facts and concepts. Brian Campbell proved how this type of knowledge becomes inconsequential over time. He gives the example of how people once believed that animals running under the ground caused earthquakes and that volcano’s were proof of hell. If only a realist approach was taken, people would have been satisfied with this explanation and never investigated plate tectonics. Ultimately, we need to pass on the abilities and the drive to figure out how the world works onto students in order to better prepare students according the nature of science.

Title: Constructing Scientific Knowledge in the Classroom
Author: Rosalind Driver, Hilary Asoko, John Leach, Eduardo Mortimer, and Philip Scott.
Source:
Review: In the article “Constructing Scientific Knowledge in the Classroom,” the authors take a look at personal and social constructivism and how they apply in the classroom. The authors begin by giving a brief view of the nature of science in the sense that scientific knowledge is “both symbolic in nature and also socially negotiated.” They continued to state that scientific knowledge is both constructed and communicated through “culture and social institutions of science.” Ultimately they make the notion that the role of a science educator is to help a learner understand how knowledge is created and verified rather than just trying to understand the world from the get go. They then talked about how an individual learns science. It must be done through a process that Piaget called equilibration, or a proce4ss of evolving current schemata to incorporate new data. It was also discussed that having others opinions at the learner‚s disposal is integral to the evolution of these pre-existing schemes. They then continue onto social construction of knowledge. There is a very important point brought up about social constructivism: “If knowledge construction is seen solely as an individual process, then this is similar to what has traditionally been identified as discovery learning. If, however, learners are to be given access to the knowledge systems of science, the process of knowledge construction must go beyond personal empirical enquiry.” Ultimately it is found that learning science requires both personal and social processes. The article then provides two examples of constructivism in a classroom situation where students make predictions and the teacher acts as a guide and assists the students in their learning.

Title: The Effect of Method and Format on the Responses of Subjects to a Piagetian Reasoning Problem
Author: John R. Staver and Ernest T. Pascarella.
Source:
Review: In the article, “The Effect of Method and Format on the Responses of Subjects to a Piagetian Reasoning Problem,” the authors describe their findings on an experiment in order to judge whether or not the method or format of assessment has any effect on the results. The experimenters used a Piagetian reasoning problem in order to see if subjects could recognize patterns. The test was delivered by four different methods: 1. Individual clinical interview, 2. Paper and pencil problem with illustration following a group presentation of the task, 3. Group administered paper and pencil instrument with illustration, and 4. Group administered paper and pencil instrument without illustration. Each method included four formats: 1. Completion answer with essay justification, 2. Completion answer with multiple-choice justification, 3. Multiple-choice answer with essay justification, and 4. Multiple-choice answer with multiple-choice justification. Ultimately, through regression analysis, they showed that neither the method nor he format accounted for significant variance in performance. They stated then, “a finding of non-significance indicates that much of the concern voiced by researchers about traditional and alternative methods of assessing Piagetian reasoning patterns may be much ado over nothing.” Finally, they talked about possible implications for teachers. First of all they state that teachers are able to use multiple methods and formats of teaching and assessment in order to encourage more advanced reasoning. However, we are warned that teachers must still us caution by making sure that the tasks still pertain to the specific reasoning pattern being taught. Secondly, it is stated that the teacher must determine the detail of information desired from the assessment before designing their formats and scoring system in order to get accurate results.

Date: February 25, 2003
Title: “Equity, Excellence & ‘Just Plain Good Teaching’”
Authors: April L. Gardner, Cheryl L. Mason, and Marsha Lakes Matyas
Reference: Gardner, Mason, and Matyas “Equity, Excellence & ‘Just Plain Good Teaching’” The American Biology Teacher, Volume 51, no. 2, February 1989
Review: This article writes about the lack of a female or minority presence in the scientific community and science courses as well as what we, as science teachers, can do about it. Historically, women have been less likely to participate in the sciences. The reasoning that many possess involves responses such as, “I’m no good in science and math” or “Science and math are not important for my future.” Dispositions such as these are derived from a lack of confidence in math and science abilities, lack of support from parents and peers, and a lack of exposure to careers and/or role models in the scientific community. By not encouraging women to become involved in the sciences, we are depriving the nation of 50% of its potential population. The article then talks about what teachers can do to alleviate this deficiency. First of all, the authors recommend some strategies. They mention that we should be aware of our attitudes concerning our own subtle biases like allowing males to participate more since they are more apt to volunteer. They also suggest using more hands on activities where males and females can both participate preventing “passive non-participation.” Finally, they suggest utilizing small group discussion and activities to allow plenty of opportunities for everyone to get involved in learning. During these activities, as the authors remind us, we should use gender-neutral language. This can be done by using he or she in place of him or his, and also by helping to dissolve previous student possessed biases like the typical “mad scientist” stereotype of a scientist. Most importantly, the authors discuss introducing female and/or minority role models to the class. This will help give exposure to career opportunities in the science related fields as well as strengthen the notion that women are just as able to succeed in science and men are.

Date: February 25, 2003
Title: “Equity, Excellence & ‘Just Plain Good Teaching’”
Authors: April L. Gardner, Cheryl L. Mason, and Marsha Lakes Matyas
Reference: Gardner, Mason, and Matyas “Equity, Excellence & ‘Just Plain Good Teaching’” The American Biology Teacher, Volume 51, no. 2, February 1989
Review: This article writes about the lack of a female or minority presence in the scientific community and science courses as well as what we, as science teachers, can do about it. Historically, women have been less likely to participate in the sciences. The reasoning that many possess involves responses such as, “I’m no good in science and math” or “Science and math are not important for my future.” Dispositions such as these are derived from a lack of confidence in math and science abilities, lack of support from parents and peers, and a lack of exposure to careers and/or role models in the scientific community. By not encouraging women to become involved in the sciences, we are depriving the nation of 50% of its potential population. The article then talks about what teachers can do to alleviate this deficiency. First of all, the authors recommend some strategies. They mention that we should be aware of our attitudes concerning our own subtle biases like allowing males to participate more since they are more apt to volunteer. They also suggest using more hands on activities where males and females can both participate preventing “passive non-participation.” Finally, they suggest utilizing small group discussion and activities to allow plenty of opportunities for everyone to get involved in learning. During these activities, as the authors remind us, we should use gender-neutral language. This can be done by using he or she in place of him or his, and also by helping to dissolve previous student possessed biases like the typical “mad scientist” stereotype of a scientist. Most importantly, the authors discuss introducing female and/or minority role models to the class. This will help give exposure to career opportunities in the science related fields as well as strengthen the notion that women are just as able to succeed in science and men are.

Date: March 3, 2003
Title: “But That’s Just Good Teaching! The Case for Culturally Relevant Pedagogy”
Author: Gloria Ladson-Billings
Reference: Theory Into Practice, Volume 34, Number 3, Summer 1995
Review: Ladson-Billings wrote about the deficiency of minority academic performance in this article. Mostly, instead of shelling out a number of striking facts, she offered solutions based off of research. It comes as a shock to most people, but what she suggests usually sounds like good teaching. “Instead of some ‘magic bullet’ or intricate formula and steps for instruction, some members of my audience are shocked to hear what seems to them like some rather routine teaching strategies.” She questions, however, why so little of this good teaching seems to be going on in classrooms dominantly populated with African Americans. Her main goal of this article is to describe what has been identified as culturally relevant, and what role this plays in the education of minorities. She first writes about the linking between school and culture. She mentions, “Educators traditionally have attempted to insert culture into the education, instead of inserting education into the culture.” In order to have culturally relevant pedagogy, Ladson-Billings notes three criteria that must be present. These are that students must have academic success, while maintaining their cultural integrity and competence, and finally, students must become critically conscience in order to challenge the status quo. As for the first of these criteria Ladson-Billings states, “The trick of culturally relevant teaching is to get students to ‘choose’ academic excellence.” By directing more positive attention to minorities, they will develop a love of learning instead of distaste due to neglect. The second, cultural competence is equally important so that while learning, the student doesn’t compromise their traditional values, thereby loosing their self-image. Finally, critical consciousness is an important part of cultural relevance. In order to help students develop into members of the community, they must develop “a broader sociopolitical consciousness that allows them to critique the cultural norms, values, morals, and institutions that produce and maintain social inequities.” Ladson-Billings closes the article by writing about implications. Ultimately, it is impossible to make a final judgment as to what should be done without further study of effective methods of promoting cultural relevant education. In the mean-time, her suggestions should be taken in order to provide every child the opportunity of a full and meaningful education.

Date: March 19, 2003
Title: “Extra Credit, Extra Science”
Author: John R. Cannon
Reference: Science and Children
Review: This article is motivated by a survey of elementary teachers that showed that over 25% of them felt that they were not very well prepared to teach the sciences. In fact, most of them felt better prepared in reading and language arts instruction. It was recommended that prospective teacher become more knowledgeable in the sciences and automatically; naturally, the children would then become more knowledgeable. However, this is not often the truth. John R Cannon recommends a extenuation of just becoming knowledgeable. He tries to answer the question “how might an instructor increase the science content covered in an elementary science methods course without reducing time spent on pedagogical issues?” He offers the suggestion of an extra credit approach. Students of his methods course scored an average of only 63% on a scientific literacy exam before the implementation of this extra credit approach. He recommends that the methods teacher offer a scientific demonstration at the end of the class and as an extra credit assignment, students could complete a Vee diagram. “The Vee diagram encourages learners to make observations in three areas: thinking, doing, and studying the focus question of the demonstration.” At the beginning of the next class, the instructor can go over the explanation of the demonstration and therefore enhancing the students familiarity with the scientific process. Making these students confront their misconceptions is a better way than merely lecturing on the subject.

Date: March 26, 2003
Title: “Complying with Science”
Author: James T. Biehle
Reference: Theory Into Practice, Volume 34, Number 3, Summer 1995
Review: Biehle wrote about the difficulties that handicapped students have in the classroom; particularly science classrooms. In one example, a handicapped student needed to rely on her lab partner to operate the equipment being used in order to successfully complete the activity. This, in turn, made the student feel less a part of her class. The main focus of this article is around The Americans with Disabilities and its evolving process. ADAAG, or the Uniform Federal Accessibility Standards that relate specially to science facilities requires the facility planner to make specific judgments about the ease of accessibility of facilities and ease of use of equipment for all students. He then spoke at length about lab benches and the various necessary dimensions required to be considered handicapped accessible. Also, “at least five percent of the stations (but not less than one) must be accessible.” Overall this article wrote about the need for change in classrooms in order to provide the most opportunity for all students to have a complete and fulfilling education.

Date: April 4, 2003
Title: “Can Teachers Be Trusted To Improve Teaching?”
Author: Dale Mann
Reference: PHI DELTA KAPPAN September 1995
Review: The answer to the question of “Can teachers be trusted to improve teaching?” seems to be a solid “yes.” This is largely due to the IMPACT II program. In this article, Dale Mann describes the IMPACT II program and the results from its implementation. The idea behind the program is a simple one; rely on teachers to collaborate and improve education. Traditionally, teachers have been approached by the administration and the state to implement different programs that direct teachers to use certain methods and to conform to certain standards in order to deliver an effective and extensive education to their students. However, the teachers themselves have little to no say about the program. The IMPACT II program is different. This program offers good teachers grants in order to collaborate with other good teachers in order to improve education by offering their input of ideas and methods of teaching. “Anyone who is any good at any job figures out ways to do it better.” This is the rational behind the program. The teacher then packages their idea and is connected to other good teachers to share this idea. Through this type of networking, education can be transformed easily. It also creates gateways for teachers to continue contact and collaboration about improving education. But, does the IMPACT II program work? After all, if the program is ineffective, it is just a waste of time and money for an already heavily budgeted educational system. The program was founded around 1980 and results appeared as soon as 1982. Evaluators found that the program recognizes outstanding teachers giving much needed moral support to a profession that is often lonely and frustrating. The program also connected outstanding teachers successfully by increasing the sense of collegiality among the teachers. Classroom instruction was improved by the access of new ideas for presenting material and managing classrooms. The program itself also showed that it worked among diverse settings. Both urban and rural schools showed improvement. The program also kept good teachers in the profession. Teaching can be a frustrating and good teachers often go into administration or other careers. The program provides opportunity for leadership roles and professional growth. Finally, the program has lasting effects. Unlike most programs that phase out in a very short time and a new program needs to be implemented, IMPACT II is a continuous system of educational improvement. The success of the IMPACT II program over its history has shown that we can, and should trust teachers to improve education.

Date: February 7, 2003
Title: Those Who Understand Knowledge Growth in Teaching
Author: Lee S. Shulman
Source: Educational Researcher, 15(2), 4-14.
Review: This article explores the differences between content knowledge and pedagogy. The author thinks that the teacher certification and evaluation is on how teachers manage their classrooms, organize activities, allocate time, and how to plan lessons. The author thinks that the education boards have questions about the lessons being taught. This has spurred the author to do research in the area figuring out how teachers take a piece of text and transform their understanding of it into instruction that their students can understand.

Date: February 22, 2003
Standard covered: NSTA #2
Title: Ten myths of science: Reexamining what we think we know about the nature of science. Author: McComas, W. (1996).
Source: School Science and Mathematics, 96, 10-16.
Review: This article addresses and attempts to refute some of the most widespread and most infamous misconceptions held by students regarding science. The article discusses ten myths which include: hypotheses become theories which become laws, a hypothesis is an educated guess, a general and universal scientific method exists, evidence accumulated carefully will result in sure knowledge, science and its methods provide absolute proof, science is procedural more than creative, science and its methods can answer all questions, scientists are particularly objective, experiments and the principle route to scientific knowledge, and all work in science is reviewed to keep the process honest. The author argues that not only students fall to these fallacies but the teachers fall as well.

Date: February 22, 2003
Standard covered: NSTA #3
Title: Dialectical constraints to the discursive practices of a high school physics community.
Author: Tobin, K., McRobbie, C. and Anderson, D. (1997)
Source: Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 34, 5, pp. 491 - 508.
Review: This article explores a case study of a teacher and his struggle to teach in a manner that attempts to align him to discursive teaching practices. Discursive teaching practices include talking, writing, cognitive, argumentation, and representation; in other words, to teach science as an inquiry. The purpose of this report is to explore the phenomenon that restricts constructivism in a classroom. There are three specific experiences that the researchers observed and commented about. The issues of major restriction included time constraints, the event of students feeling intimidated for bringing forward challenges when their basis for their challenge is their everyday commonsense knowledge, and a failure on the teachers part to recognize when a student is appealing to him as a higher authority in an attempt to reason through a problem that neither the teacher understands or the student.

Week 4 (NSTA 4, Due 2/12/03)

Week 11-14 (Others) Due 4/09/03 + 4/16/03 + 4/23/03 + 4/30/03 etc.

Date: February 22, 2003
Movie Title: October Sky
Directed by: Joe Johnston

Analysis: “October Sky” tells the story of four boys in a poverty-stricken corner of West Virginia who are determined to build their own rocket. The movie takes place during the Cold War of the late 1950’s at a time when Russia is beginning to seemingly pull ahead in the space race. The movie is seen through the eyes of their leader, young Homer Hickham (Jake Gyllenhaal), who sees the Russia satellite Sputnik fly across the October Sky and starts reading the science fiction of Jules Verne. Homer is a good student, but math and science are his weak points. He is the one with the original vision of building a rocket. He knows he needs help. He breaks all of the social rules in the school lunch room by approaching the class brain, an outcast named Quentin (Chris Owen).

They talk about rocket fuel, nozzles, velocity. Two other boys get involved: Roy Lee (William Lee Scott) and O'Dell (Chad Lindberg). Their first rocket blows a hole in the picket fence in front of Homer's house. The second one narrowly misses some miners at the coal mine, and Homer's dad John (Chris Cooper), the mine supervisor, forbids further experimentation and confiscates all of the rocket stuff from the basement. But the kids labor on in an isolated patch of woods, building a shelter to protect themselves from exploding rockets. They talk a machinist at the mine into building them a rocket casing of stronger steel, and they use alcohol from a moon-shiner as an ingredient in the rocket fuel.

The tension in the movie is not between the boys and their rocket, but between the boys and those who think that miners' sons belong down in the mines and not up in the sky. Homer's father is not a bad man; he fights for the jobs of his men, he rescues several in a near-disaster, he injures his eye in another emergency. He wants Homer to follow in his footsteps. Throughout the entire movie, Homer and his father square off. However, Homer’s teacher (Laura Dern) encourages him and spurs him on to reach his dreams. She feels her life will have failed if some of the kids don't get out and realize their dreams. The science and math that she is teaching the boys eventually helps get the boys out of serious trouble. Homer uses trigonometry and science to argue their innocence in a forest fire incident that they are accused of.

The boys take their rocket to the county science fair and they win. Homer takes the rocket to the National Science Fair in Indianapolis and they win again. This is the boys’ dream and their ticket out of Coalwood, West Virginia. In the end, the whole town, including Homer’s father pull together and help Homer to win the National Science Fair. The boys get their academic scholarship which is virtually unheard of at this point in time.

From a teacher’s perspective, this movie represents the power and influence that a teacher has to impact a student’s life. This movie also shows that sometimes the best students will come from seemingly impossible areas. Like these boys, many students love science and love to explore the world. However, when a student comes under the impression that science is worthless and that they should pursue other ventures, an outside influence like Homer’s teacher needs to come in and encourage the young scientist to pursue his or her dream.

Date: February 22, 2003
Movie Title: Finding Forrestor
Directed by: Gus Van Sant
Analysis:
Newcomer Rob Brown plays Jamal Wallace, a Bronx high school student whose stunning achievement test scores and standout performance on the basketball court earn him the notice of officials at the exclusive Mailor-Callow Prep School, where he is offered a full scholarship as a junior. Jamal's mother and brother (Busta Rhymes) are thrilled by the offer; realizing that going to Mailor will allow him to advance his prospects, Jamal agrees to attend. Although his streetwise background makes him a social outsider amidst a sea of rich, pampered kids, Jamal's performance on the court and in the classroom earns him the respect of many of his teachers and peers, including Claire (Anna Paquin), the pretty daughter of the head of Mailor's board of directors.

Meanwhile, as a result of a dare, Jamal inadvertently discovers the whereabouts of the reclusive author William Forrester (Sean Connery), a former Pulitzer Prize winner who disappeared from the public eye after writing "the Great 20th Century Novel", Avalon Landing. Forrester owns an apartment overlooking the blacktop where Jamal and his friends play pickup games. One day after making a brazen statement, the young man is forced to back up his words by sneaking into Forrester's apartment to steal something. He is caught in the act and accidentally leaves behind his backpack which contains his journals. Forrester writes comments in the notebooks including the phrase "constipated writing" and returns the backpack. Thus begins a peculiar mentor/student relationship, with Jamal agreeing not to reveal Forrester's whereabouts in return for Forrester's instruction in the craft of writing. There is one condition, however: Forrester tells Jamal that he can ask no questions about him, his family, or why there was only one book.

Jamal gets in trouble at school when one of his teachers accuses him of forgery and Jamal is threatened to be kicked out of school after Jamal turned in a paper with a title that was on one of Forrester’s papers. Jamal did not want to break the oath that he made with Forrester so he did not tell let anyone know that Forrester gave Jamal permission to use his title. In dramatic fashion at the end of the story, Forrester emerges after 50 years of seclusion and changes the minds of the teachers who want to kick Jamal out of the school. The story ends with Forrester dying and leaving the copy to his second book for Jamal.

From a teacher’s perspective, this movie showed the value and power of a mentor relationship that can be developed between a student and the teacher. A mentor relationship goes beyond the realm of teaching; a mentor helps the student walk through the processes it takes to get where the student needs to be. In the movie, Forrester mentored young Jamal in writing. At the beginning of the mentorship, Jamal was having trouble starting his papers. Forrester sat directly across from him and showed Jamal how he started papers. Forrester even helped Jamal start his opening paragraph. After this, Jamal was able to write his paper. This is a powerful way to teach. Many students have the raw skills that are needed to be a writer, scientist, or whatever subject they are good at. However, students can become frustrated and turned off without proper instruction which may take the teacher going through the exact same processes that the student is going through.

Another value that this movie displayed was the affect that a teacher’s stubborn pride has on a student. The writing teacher that Jamal had at the Mailer school did not like Jamal from the beginning. He thought Jamal forged his papers because he was a young black kid from the Bronx. In class, the teacher attempted to make Jamal look like a fool and Jamal ended up making the teacher look like a fool. The teacher became angry and this is point in the movie when Jamal’s status at the school became in jeopardy. This teacher almost ruined a young student’s career because he could not admit he was wrong. A good teacher can admit when he does not have the answer to the question and should encourage a student who displays more knowledge than he does.

Date: March 5, 2003
Title: Those Who Understand: Knowledge Growth in Teaching.
Author: Lee S. Shulman
Source: Educational Researchers, February, 1986, 4-14.
Review: Mr. Shulman from Stanford University addresses the common conception that “He who can, does. He who cannot, teaches,” as stated by George Bernard Shaw. This shows that teachers are often not seen as professionals. There is an assumed of lack of knowledge and incompetence about those who are teachers. He then goes on to discuss the history of perceptions of teacher knowledge. In the late 1800s teacher examinations focused mostly on content knowledge. About 5 to 10% of the questions on those examinations focused on pedagogical knowledge. Knowledge of teaching theories and methods were important but were noticeably secondary to subject knowledge. In the 1980s there was a shift towards more focus on pedagogical knowledge. It wasn’t as important to know content knowledge, as it was to know how to teach. This kind of attitude was based on research. Because it was based on research and scientific principles this was thought to be the best way to prepare teachers to teach. However, what those reports on studies failed to take into account was the content knowledge, and this is the point that the author is trying to make. These studies don’t account for the fact that content knowledge is needed along with pedagogical knowledge. The author then talks about the history of content and pedagogy in academia. In medieval times, a “master” or “doctor” was only given those titles if they had the skills and ability to teach their trade or subject. The terms “master” and “doctor” are still in existence in our universities today. In both time periods they are the highest distinctions one could receive. However, in the present time they seem to have lost the added definition of the ability to teach a particular subject or trade. Mr. Shulman then goes on to discuss what he thinks should be the different types of teacher knowledge. He states the three main ones as content knowledge, pedagogical content knowledge, and curricular knowledge. HE thinks a teacher should have content knowledge in their specific area. They should also know how and to best teach that content knowledge, and teachers should also have a good knowledge of what types of curriculum are available and which are better. These three main types of content knowledge can then each be further broken down into prepositional knowledge, case knowledge, and strategic knowledge. Propositional knowledge is considered to be principles, maxims, and norms. For instance one example would be “Never smile before Christmas.” Case knowledge is considered to be prototypes, precedents, and parables. They are specific examples of propositional knowledge. Strategic knowledge comes about when principles collide or the precedents of cases are not compatible. However, Mr. Shulman does go on to say that strategic knowledge or judgement may just be the combination of propositional knowledge, case knowledge and experience not an actual third type of knowledge. He thinks that future teacher examinations should address these three main types of teacher knowledge in order to more effective access our teachers. He then offers a revision to George Bernard Shaw’s statement. “Those who can, do. Those who understand, teach.”

Date: March 5, 2003
Title: Ten Myths of Science: Reexamining What We Think We Know About the Nature of Science
Author: William F. McComas
Source: School Science and Mathematics, Vol. 96(1), January 1996, 10-15.
Review: William F. McComas discusses ten myths or misconceptions about the nature of science. This is a list: 1) Hypotheses Become Theories Which Become Laws, 2) A Hypothesis is an Educated Guess, 3) A General and Universal Scientific Method Exists, 4) Evidence Accumulated Carefully Will Result in Sure Knowledge, 5) Science and its Methods Provide Absolute Proof, 6) Science Is Procedural More Than Creative, 7) Science and its Methods Can Answer All Questions, 8) Scientists are Particularly Objective, 9) Experiments are the Principle Route to Scientific Knowledge, and 10) All Work in Science is Reviewed to Keep the Process Honest. In response to the first myth, he says that theories are explanations of laws. They do not and cannot become laws. There is not a hierarchical nature to them. In response to the second myth, the author recommends that the term be discarded due to the fact that it has at least three definitions. Different terminology should be used to clear up the confusion between the different uses of the word. Myth 3 is about the so-called “Scientific Method” that most students are taught. In actuality, most scientists do not adhere to this method. There is no one method that all scientists use. When trying to solve problems, they use their imagination, creativity, previous knowledge, and persistence just as all other problem-solvers do. This myth may eventually be abandoned since newer texts are doing away with the “Scientific Method” entirely or additionally discussing the methods of science. The author’s response to myth four is about discovering laws and theories through induction. Through the process of induction two equally qualified scientists looking at the same evidence would arrive at the same law or theory. This does not occur in reality. Laws and theories do not come about through a mechanical movement through several steps. The final jump from a mass of evidence to a conclusion requires creativity and imagination. Myth five addresses the idea of absolute proof. This does not exist in science. Science is tentative in that something is considered true, but only as long as there is continuing supporting evidence. When there is evidence that does not support a law or theory, they are often revised or abandoned completely. In addressing myth six, the author gives the example of most school laboratories being more about verification then about actually discovering something. This leads students to believe that there is no creativity in science and may often cause them exclude science as a career because of this lack of creativity. In regards to myth seven, he basically says that science and scientists should not and cannot answer questions about moral, ethical, aesthetic, social, and metaphysical issues. There is no way to scientifically falsify those types of ideas. “Scientists are no different in their level of objectivity than are other professionals,” is the main idea behind the author’s response to myth eight. Scientists do have preconceived notions and biases about the ways in which the world works, and this does affect how, why, and what type of observations they make. Mr. McComas cites astronomy and Darwin’s theory of evolution as two examples where experimentation is not the way in which scientific knowledge was obtained. These are two areas where experimentation is not possible because if of an inability to control variables. The final myth about science is about scientific work being verified to keep scientists honest. This is supposed to occur, but is not really feasible. Most scientists are too busy and there are not enough research funds available to simply verify someone else’s work. The focus is more on producing new information.

Date: March 5, 2003
Title: Develop Concepts, Question by Question
Author: Marylou Dantonio
Source: The Science Teacher, May 1987, 46-49.
Review: The author discusses using different types of questions to develop students’ understanding of science. She talks about focusing questions which are those that begin with who, what, when, where, which, why, and how. These questions result in students needing more time to think about their answers as opposed to yes-no questions. This problem can be resolved by using wait-time. There are several types of focusing questions. Refocusing questions are used if the students are talking off of the subject. Clarification questions help students define words and state examples that they have used in their own answers. Verification questions let learners give evidence for their ideas. The final type of question is support questions. These help students link inferences that they have made about observations or recalled information. The author thinks that science teachers need to greatly improve their questioning techniques in order to be effective teachers.

Date: March 5, 2003
Title: Human Intelligence: The Model Is the Message
Author: Robert J. Sternberg
Source: Science, Vol. 230, December 1985, 1111-1118.
Review: Mr. Sternberg begins by saying that the models that are used in developing theories have hindered research into human intelligence. The three main questions that need to be addressed are: “What is the relation of intelligence to the internal world of the individual? What is the relation of intelligence to the external world of the individual? What is the relation of intelligence to the experience of the individual?” There are six main types of models. They are geographic, computational, anthropological, biological, sociological, and political. He then goes on to discuss the positive and negative aspects of each of them. The geographic model is associated with Gall and phrenology. The computational model is associated with Jensen, Hunt, Sternberg, and Simon. It considers the brain to be a computer and intelligence to be a computer program. The anthropological model says that intelligence is either partly or completely determined by the environment or culture that an individual lives and is often referred to as contextualism. Piaget is the most known proponent of the biological model, which describes intelligence as an evolving system. He describes periods of intellectual development that build upon one another. The sociological model is associated with Vygotsky and is in direct opposition to Piaget and the biological model. Sternberg, the author, argues for the political model. He does so because he believes that this model attempts to address all three of the previously mentioned questions simultaneously and incorporates parts of all five of the other models.

Date: March 5, 2003
Title: The Effect of Method and Format on the Responses of Subjects to a Piagetian Reasoning Problem
Author: John R. Staver and Ernest T. Pascarella
Source: Journal of Research in Science Teaching, Vol. 21, No. 3, 1984, 305-314.
Review: This is a journal article in which researchers studied subjects reasoning levels through a Piagetian task. They used four different methods and four different formats of assessment for this study. They were looking to see if the differing methods or formats affected students’ how well they performed. There were 16 groups with each group being randomly assigned to a “cell” in the 4X4 factorial design. The researchers found that with the exception of one group, the type of method and format seemed to have no significant effect on their performance of the task. This apparent nonsignificance may in fact be significance. It can be used to show that as long as the task is well thought out, then a simple paper and pencil assessment is suitable. If this were true, then it would simplify the testing of subjects reasoning levels considerably.

Date: March 5, 2003
Title: Achieving Scientific Literacy Through a Curriculum Connected with Mathematics and Technology
Author: Mary Hamm
Source: School Science and Mathematics, Vol. 92(1), January 1992, 6-9.
Review: This article discusses scientific literacy in the fact that it includes the three areas of mathematics, science, and technology. When comparing American students to students from other countries, it is shown that we are behind them at most grade levels and the farther along our students are in school the farther behind they are. Teachers need to promote scientific literacy among our students to help decrease this gap. Many students have difficulty in seeing how these three areas are related and how they all depend upon each other. As teachers we need to be able to combine content knowledge with pedagogical knowledge. The author lists seven steps that can be taken to improve the success of American students as compared to international students in the areas of science, mathematics, and technology. They are: 1) Improve the teaching of science, mathematics, and technology, 2) Attend to the importance of students in the learning process, 3) Incorporate innovative and alternative teaching and learning strategies, 4) Develop new curriculum models, 5) Extend learning beyond the classroom, 6) Provide students equal access to knowledge, and 7) Involve teachers actively in the learning process. The author also argues for a movement towards a connected Science/Mathematics/Technology curriculum. Through this students would hopefully be more able to see and understand the interrelations between them. They would then be better able to think scientifically and mathematically. The author believes that if a new attitude towards the teaching of these areas is adopted, then there is no reason that all American students can’t become scientifically literate.

Date: March 6, 2003
Title: But That’s Just Good Teaching! The Case for Culturally Relevant Pedagogy
Author: Gloria Ladson-Billings
Source: Theory Into Practice, Vol. 34, No. 3, Summer 1995, 159-165.
Review: This article discusses a study of eight teachers who were thought to be teaching in culturally relevant ways. The article goes on to show why these teachers are thought of in this way. It describes some of the tactics that they employ in order to engage their African-American students. Even though most of the teachers themselves are white, they find ways to relate the material to what interests the students. They also try to create a community of learners and are seen in the community and bring parents and relatives into the classroom also.

Date: March 21, 2003
Title: Extra Credit, Extra Science
Author: John R. Cannon
Source: Science and Children, September, 1996, 38-39.
Review: In a 1990 survey about 25% of elementary teachers felt not well prepared to teach science. One way to increase the science content covered in elementary science methods courses is to use an “extra credit” approach. A demonstration is done in the class. Then the students have to fill out a Vee Diagram, and also perform the demonstration at home again. They must then explain in scientific terms to friends, professors, etc. The Vee Diagram encourages observations in three areas: thinking, doing, and studying the focus question of the demonstration. The diagrams are then evaluated and points are assigned based upon accuracy and clarity of the explanation.

Date: May 9, 2003
Title: Making Science Special students, special needs
Author: Jeffrey D. Weld
Source: The Science Teacher, 34-38.
Review: This article discusses ways in which physically handicapped students can be helped in participating in lab activities better. The author discusses ways to improve field trip experiences. He also suggests lab buddies, creating a flexible room, customizing lab equipment, adapting the lesson, conducting pre-course interviews, involving the class, using computer-assisted learning, and using a team approach as possible ways in which to help physically handicapped students more fully participate in lab activities. This is important because as science teachers, we continually advocate lab activities as being integral aspects of learning science.

Date: May 9, 2003
Title: Who Aspires to Teach? A Descriptive Study of Preservice Teachers
Author: James E. Green and Roy A. Weaver
Source: Contemporary Education, Vol. 63, No. 3, Spring 1992, 234-238.
Review: This article discusses what types of students decide to go into teaching as a career. Some of the influences are working conditions, the influence of a “significant other” by which they mean a former teacher, altruism or commitment to serve others, and gender and choice. Then the authors describe the methods they used in collecting data such as the subjects, the survey instrument, and the procedure. They also then published their results with respect to demographic characteristics and personal characteristics. In conclusion, their high school teachers influenced more students than anyone else. Socioeconomic class produced the fewest differences in relation to who decides to be a teacher. The profession needs more males in the elementary grades and more minorities at all grade levels.

Title: Misconceptions Die Hard
Author: Joseph I. Stepans, Ronald E. Beiswenger, Steven Dyche
Source: The Science Teacher, September 1996
Review: This article is about a study that was done to show that students’ abilities in scientific literacy are lacking. Although many of the older students in the study knew more of the scientific vocabulary their understanding was not much better than the younger students tested. “Some students simply reject explanations that are in conflict with their beliefs or that they do not understand. They opt to retain a misconception that makes sense to them.” The article addressed a few strategies to help combat misconceptions. One way was to choose textbooks more carefully, however not all teachers have this opportunity. A second strategy was through the students doing labs. This allows the students to figure things out for themselves. The other strategy that I particularly liked was to write down all the misconceptions and use them in future teachings.

Title: Ten Myths of Science
Author: William F. McComas
Source: School Science and Mathematics, V.96(1), January 1996
Review: This article focuses on myths in the area of science. One of the myths involves hypotheses, theories, and laws. McComas makes a statement that the definition of a hypothesis should be abandoned. I am not sure I agree with this, although it’s definition is probably one of the most misused in science, it should not be abandoned. Another of the myths is that there is a universal scientific method. A the article make a good point that the methods of science are the same as for all problem solvers, meaning there isn’t just one. The other big myth that the article addresses is that science provides absolute proofs. The article concludes with a call for teachers to help increase scientific literacy.

Title: Constructing Scientific Knowledge in the Classroom
Author(s): Driver, Asoko, Leach, Mortimer, and Scott
Source: Educational Researcher; October, 1994
Review: This article examines the view that scientific knowledge is constructed, not transmitted. Knowledge is built up by the student by a variety of “research traditions” in science education. The teacher has two roles in the students learning process. The first is to introduce new ideas and provide support for the students to interpret these ideas for themselves. The second is to listen and determine how the ideas are being interpreted and give students information for further understanding. The constructivist view of education is more of a social nature. The authors conclude that science must be taught both on a social and personal level though.

Tilte: Human Intelligence: The Model is the Message
Author: Robert J. Sternberg
Source: Science, V. 230 December 1985
Review: Sternberg examines three main questions of human intelligenc and the models that correspond to them. The First of these questions involves the the relation of intelligence and the internal world of the individual. The first model associated with this question is called the geographic model. This model is based on an assumption that intelligence is related to the shape of a persons head, phrenology. The second model, the computational model, involves understanding intelligence in terms of the information processing that people do when thinking intelligently. The second question of human intelligence relates intelligence to the external world of the individual. The model for that has been used to answer this question is the anthropological model, intelligence is wholly or partly determined by enviroment. The third question involves the relation of intelligence to experiences. There are two main models that apply to this question. One model is the biologicl model that implies intelligence is an evolving system. The second is the siciological model, this model views inteligence as an internalization of social processes. Sternberg concludes that a theory of intelligence should answer all three of the questions at once. The first attempt at doing this is through a political model. This model depicts intelligence as mental self-government. Intellgence can be viewd as a form of government; it evolves over time, requires experiences that come from ones community. Sternberg does not doubt that this wil be the final model. Models should be our servants rather than our masters.

Title: Equity, Excellence, and Just Plain Good Teaching
Authors: April Gardner, Cheryl Mason, and Marsha Matyas
Source: The American Biology Teacher, V.51 No.2; February 1989
Review: This article is mainly about getting not only female students to become more active in the science world but also minority groups. The authors identify teaching strategies that can be implemented to encourage groups that are usually left behind in science and mathematics to be involved. The first is to try to rid ourselves as teachers of any biases we may have. This involves holding high expectations of all students, not allowing students to just get by with out participating, and providing equal encouragement to all to take higher science and math classes. The second strategy involves hands on learning. Typically, females in the classroom don’t participate much in labs and other activities of the sort. To combat this we as teachers must encourage females to get involved in science extra-curricular activities. Also another way to do this is to ask female students to set up equipment and during lab experiments pair female students together. The third strategy is to have students work in small groups. “Cooperative small group work is a more effective strategy both for achievement and motivation, especially for female students.” Students of both gender and of all ethnicities have more chances to participate, to gain “hands-on” skills and increase their confidence. Other ideas for use in the classroom are to relate the topics to the students’ everyday life, include career information, and give examples of people that can be seen as role models.

Title: Integrating Tech Prep into Science Teacher Preparation
Author: Steven Gilbert
Source: School Science and Mathematics V.97(4) pg 206-211 April 1997
Review: This article is about the educational reform known as Tech Prep. This is a sequence of study that begins in high school and leads directly to the working world or an associates degree in a two year college. The classes that this article describes as being tech prep actually sound very much like how we are learning to teach. The classes in the program focus on context-based teaching and competency development. They are designed to prepare students for life after high school whether that involves directly going to work or to college. “Tech prep programs are hybrids integrating the acedemic competencies of college prep with the practical skills of vocational programs.” There are limited results from studies, however thus far students in Principles of Technology, a Physics based class scored higher than on the same test than students of the traditional Physics class. The problem of the tech prep program is the “lack of occupational knowledge, skill and motivation on the part of the teachers.” The only way suggested by the author to correct this problem requires changes in the way education is organized at the university level.

Title: But That’s Just Good Teaching! The Case for Culturally Relevant Pedagogy
Author: Gloria Ladson-Billings
Source: Theory Into Practice V. 34(3) Summer 1995 Ohio State Univ.
Review: The purpose of this article is to describe a culturally relevant pedagogy. Culturally relevant pedagogy rests on three main points. The first is students must experience academic success; “culturally relevant teaching requires that teachers attend to students’ academic needs, not merely make them feel good.” The second is that students must develop or maintain competency in their culture. Culturally relevant teachers use a student’s culture as a tool for learning. One teacher created a program that allowed the students to learn from others parents, which also provided cultural knowledge. The third point states that students must develop a “critical consciousness through which they challenge the status quo of the current social order.” Students should develop a sociopolitical consciousness that will allow them to evaluate cultural norms, values, mores, and institutions that produce and maintain social inequities. “If a school is about preparing students for active citizenship, what better citizenship tool than the ability to critically analyze society?”

Title: Extra Credit, Extra Science
Author: John R. Cannon
Source: Science and Children V. 43(1) September 1996
Review: The purpose of this article was to tell of a suggestion to increase scientific literacy of students in elementary science methods classes. Extra credit activities seemed to work well for the teacher of this class. It got all of the students involved, whether they needed the extra points or not. Most of the activities performed were appropriate for use in the elementary school level. One of the most important aspects of the extra credit system was that it helped to identify misconceptions of science. Another important finding was that the student teachers found many resources available for finding science information. The use of the extra credit science method “combines information retrieval and pedagogy, while modeling contemporary teaching strategies.”

Title: Making Science Special Students, Special Needs
Author: Jeffery D. Weld
Source: The Science Teacher November 1990
Review: This article is about accommodating students with disabilities in a science classroom. “Science more than any other subject needs to be accessible to students with disabilities, for it is the study of problem solving using the scientific method.” Teaching disabled students the scientific method provides them with the tools needed to live in a non-disabled world. In the classroom an instructor must be able to adapt the classroom to the needs of students. A teacher has the greatest impact on the success of a mainstreamed student. A pre-course meeting can help all students know that you are interested, concerned, and willing to take extra time to help if necessary; this is especially beneficial to the mainstreamed student. This can also benefit the teacher. Parental input is also a huge help when it comes to setting goals and expectations for disabled students.

Title: Can Teachers be Trusted to Improve Teaching
Author: Dale Mann
Source: Phi Delta Kappan V. 77(1) September 1995
Review: This article describes a program called IMPACT II. This program works to bring teachers with “good” ideas for the classroom together and connect them to other teachers. The people involved in IMPACT II believe that teachers are the source of reform ideas for school systems, where as the response of policy makers has been to push teachers harder and not trust what they think. All of the teachers that participate in the program have an unusual dedication to self-improvement and the teaching profession. “The outcomes from IMPACT II come from something simple but hard to find in the current reform scene. That something is trust.”

Movie Review: Kindergarten Cop
Analysis: Kindergarten Cop is about a police officer who must go undercover as a teacher. The cop John Kimble, played by Arnold Swartzenegar, is after a killer who is looking for his son and ex-wife. Kimble must go undercover as a teacher in order to protect the child and catch the killer.

There is a major problem with his mission; the only picture of the child is from when he was a baby. Kimble has no clue which child in the class is the one is supposed to protect. Eventually he is able to find out which child he is looking for and protect him and his mother who he ends up falling for.

At first when Kimble first takes charge of the class it is utter chaos. As the movie progresses he is able to take charge of the classroom and gain some respect, which is impressive when dealing with kindergarteners. At the beginning of the movie he did not seem to care for the students at all, he was just there to do a job. Towards the end he seemed to genuinely care about their well being, for example when he went after the father of the kid who was being beaten at home. Granted that was not the way to handle that situation, but it did show that he cared very much. Genuinely caring about students I think is a major necessity of teachers. If they don’t truly care, they shouldn’t be teachers.

Movie Review: Finding Forrester
Analysis: Jamal a somewhat poor student from the Bronx is asked to attend a prestigious private school based on excellent test scores and amazing performances on the basketball court. Unknown to his friends and the school he is a gifted writer. One day on a dare from his friends, Jamal enters the apartment of William Forrester, a well renowned author, who is a mystery to them. He is never seen outside and sometimes watches Jamal and his friends through the window. Jamal is frightened away by William and forgets his book bag in the apartment. Jamal gets his book bag back to find critiques all over his writings.

Jamal goes back to the apartment to ask for help from William on his writing abilities. William is able to unlock Jamal’s abilities by simply providing him with a starting point. William resembles the making of a great teacher. He does not teach, he provides a beginning and lets the student take it from there.

There is another aspect of this movie that needs to be addressed. Jamal’s English teacher at this so called prestigious school is the perfect embodiment of a biased teacher. Because of Jamal’s background he does not believe that Jamal is capable of such impressive writing, even though at one point in the movie he shows up the teacher by answering all of his questions correctly. In reward for doing this Jamal is kicked out of class. This is a good example of bad teaching at its finest. Teachers must remember that just because a student has a bad background, it doesn’t mean that the student is also “bad.”

Date: February 17, 2003
Title: Achieving Scientific Literacy Through a Curriculum Connected with Mathematics and Technology
Author: Hamm, M.
Source: School Science and Mathematics, Vol. 92, No. 1, 1992, 6-9.
Review: This article discussed the scientific literacy of today’s American students, which tend to rank in the lower half of academic surveys of the top 15-17 countries. In general, American adults perform poorly on basic science terminology tests, with less than fifty percent knowing the Earth revolves and rotates around the Sun and confusing astronomy with astrology. The National Council on Science and Technology Education developed an outline for defining a scientifically literate person. Such standards include an understanding of the important concepts and principles of science, has a capacity for scientific ways of thinking, and so on. This doesn’t mean that they need have to know details regarding every aspect of science, but they should be aware of the basics and how each area of science and technology relate to each other. When school science programs are examined, it was shown that students seem to have an increased negative attitude about science and math through their schooling. The author then provides suggestions about what can be done to improve the curriculum, such as improving the teaching of science, mathematics, and technology by providing more hands-on experience. Attend to the importance of students in the learning process by assisting their learning and not telling the answer verbatim. Incorporate innovative and alternative teaching and learning strategies by mixing in the problem-solving and lectures with group work and discovery learning. Teachers must try to develop new curriculum models and extend learning beyond the classroom because not everything about a subject can be taught in one school year, so certain materials can be covered in other classes and let students learn some things on their own.

Date: February 17, 2003
Title: The Effect of Teachers’ Language on Students’ Conceptions of the Nature of Science
Author: Lederman, N.G. &Zeidler, D.L.
Source: Journal of Research in Science Teaching, Vol. 26, No. 9, 1989, 771-783.
Review: This article regarded a study conducted about the conception of the nature of science for students and whether the language teachers use when lecturing has an effect on the level of understanding that student come away with. The authors felt that when teachers use ordinary language, students will come to understand the content of the material better. They felt that there tended to be the most difficulty concerning the difference in qualitative and quantitative data and scientific descriptions of concepts. Separated into two groups are the Realists, who lean towards basic definitions and meanings, and the Instrumentalists, who prefer scientific terminology. In this study, 18 teachers were observed during the fall semester, evaluating one class per teacher three times on six variables consisting of testable, developmental, arbitrary constructs/models, anthropomorphic language, creative, and objective/subjective. After data was collected and analyzed, a clear relationship was found between teachers’ language and students comprehension. Teachers who tended towards the Realist perspective, using plain language to communicate science content provided the students with the context to frame their own ideas of the nature of science.

Date: February 19, 2003
Title: Dialectical Constraints to the Discursive Practices of a High School Physics Community
Author: Tobin, K., McRobbie, C. & Anderson, D.
Source: Journal of Research in Science Teaching, Vol. 35, No. 5, 1997, 491-507.
Review: This study is monitoring a teacher in a High School Physics class over a period two years and watching his teaching practices and observing how he tries to obtain his ideal classroom environment. The physics classroom is an ever evolving community where there needs to be a consistently changing mixture of discussion, experiments, writing, and overall cognition. The teacher feels that “beliefs are sometimes naturalized and regarded as common sense” and students do not really grasp what the material is covering and explaining about the world. Language is a key component, being that if a student doesn’t understand what the teacher is saying in scientific terminology, the student would get lost in the language and loose the concept they are supposed to understand. The authors give an example of a lesson vignette that they feel keeps the students away from an understanding of why the physics works, but the students come away with an understanding of how it is applied. If a teacher focuses too much on formulas, terms, numbers, and calculations and does not discuss what is behind the material, the student will be able to work out the numbers but most likely won’t be able to apply the concepts to other situations. The teacher in the observation had been teaching for three years prior to the two year study, with his goal being to implement the curriculum with a greater autonomy for the students. He had them doing student-centered work, such as presentations of problems that he gave a group of students to solve involving many Physics concepts. After the two years, it was found that he hadn’t accomplished his goal of a conducive student-centered learning environment. He had focused on technical interests such as getting the right and most efficient answers to problems with a great lack of conceptual explanation on his part, remarking on occasion that “physics is weird sometimes”. I really didn’t find the point of this study with the researchers adding in unimportant information and having no clear conclusion to their article.

Date: February 17, 2003
Title: The Effect of Method and Format on the Responses of Subjects to a Piagetian Reasoning Problem
Author: Staver, J.R. & Pascarella, E.T.
Source: Journal of Research in Science Teaching, Vol. 21, No. 3, 1984, 305-314.
Review: This study was conducted to evaluate reasoning levels of students as defined by Piaget regarding methods and formats of testing. The test that was administered to a group of 376 science and engineering freshmen at UIC was the Piaget “Mr. Tall, Mr. Short” proportional reasoning test. The test was given in 16 types, consisting of 4 methods, individual clinical interview, group presentation of task followed by paper-and-pencil problem with illustration, group administration of paper-and-pencil instrument with illustration, and group administration of paper-and-pencil instrument without illustration, with 4 formats consisting of completion answer with essay justification, completion answer with multiple-choice justification, multiple-choice answer with essay justification, and multiple-choice answer with multiple-choice justification. With these 16 groups, this test showed neither format or method had a higher testing rate or had influenced the students’ scores at all. I however feel that this is unfair data in the fact that the questions they asked were more suited for a fifth grade class than college freshmen. In some cases, the format or method of tests is dictated by the material and in other cases students would feel more comfortable with a certain test. I think that this data should have been evaluated at a different level.

Date: February 27, 2003
Title: Integrating Tech Prep into the Science Teacher Preparation
Author: Steven W. Gilbert
Source: School Science and Mathematics, Vol. 97(4), April, 1997, 206-211.
Review: This article discussed an Educational Reform movement called Tech prep, which trains high school students for a more technical career field, because that is what the job market requires now. They begin this coursework in their junior and senior years of high school and continue it through at least a two-year program for an associates degree or community college program. Right now, at least 85% of the jobs in the service sector use computerized equipment and „one out of every four new jobs in the near future going to skilled technical workers‰, so this program prepare students for this because most high school programs do not provide that higher level of applied skill. Through this program, they will provide occupationally relevant coursework in addition to academic content courses. They also describe a model for the Integration of Tech Prep into a full school curriculum, by „encouraging a familiarity with phenomena and problem-solving, creative positive attitudes, and develop a framework for understanding.

Date: February 28, 2003
Title: A Qualitative Study of Middle School Students’ Perceptions of Factors Facilitating the Learning of Science: Grounded Theory and Existing Theory
Author: Spector, B.S. & Gibson, C.W.
Source: Journal of Research in Science Teaching, Vol. 28(6), 1991, 467-484.
Review: South Florida has developed a summer program for high achieving middle school students to learn science through discovery, hands-on learning. Groups of 50-60 students go to University of Southern Florida and stay with 6-7 teachers who would facilitate their learning for twelve days. This program is meant to gain knowledge of student’s perceptions, as a way of enhancing the effectiveness of middle school science teaching and to show students that learning doesn’t mean sitting and reading a textbook. When surveyed for responses about the program, students were asked to compare leaning in school to learning during the program. Most of the student responses were that this program was unlike school in every way and that they had so much fun they didn’t realize they learned anything until it had happened. From this study of the program, helpful tools for students learning science were experiencing the situations about what they were learning, live presentations, doing hands-on activities, being active learners, having adult mentors, establishing networks, and experiencing a sense of self-reliance.

Date: March 25, 2003
Title: But That’s Just Good Teaching! The Case for Culturally Relevant Pedagogy
Author: Ladson-Billings, G.
Source: Theory into Practice, Vol. 34, No. 3, 1995, 159-165.
Review: This article discusses “culturally relevant” teaching and learning, specifically dealing with how to better integrate African Americans into schooling. The greatest challenge of teachers in this area is that African-American students tend to feel unwelcome in school and are afraid to express themselves academically. Culturally relevant pedagogy consists of three points; students must experience academic success, develop and maintain cultural competence, and develop a critical consciousness through which they challenge the status quo of the current social order. To achieve these goals teachers must make sure that all students academic needs are met and not just that they do well. One way a few teachers are doing this is by integrating a student’s background, family, and culture into the classroom. Bilingual students are encouraged to work in their native language and then translate to English. One teacher had each student have a family member or friend come for a 1-2 hour period for 2-4 days and show the class an area of expertise that they have. Students would then do research and report on an area related to the topic. These are all excellent steps that teachers can take to make students feel more comfortable in the classroom.

Zoë Paukstys
Date: March 25, 2003
Title: Extra Credit, Extra Science
Author: Cannon, J.R.
Source: Science and Children, September1996, 38-40.
Review: This article deals with the issue of extra credit issued by teachers in science classes. In a survey reported by this article, only 63% of elementary level students had sufficient comprehension on a scientific literacy test, with the main deficit lying in definitions. A proposition considered by some teachers is offering extra credit to students through a series of experiments. Even if extra credit is not needed, all students are asked to watch a demonstration done by the teacher and then fill in a Vee diagram with hypotheses on why this experiment resulted the way it did. After students turn these in, the correct answer is revealed and students who came up with an incorrect answer are asked to watch the experiment again until they are able to modify their conclusion to the correct one. Not only are students more willing to do this work because of the tag of extra credit, they learn a lot from it because of the scientific processes involved.

Zoë Paukstys
Electronic Journal #9
Date: March 25, 2003
Title: Making Science: Special Students, Special Needs
Author: Weld, J.D.
Source: The Science Teacher, November 1990, 34-38.
Review: This article discusses the issue of physically handicapped students fully being able to participate in all lab activities in a science classroom. The way that most schools are equipped now is not suitable for all types of handicap. Sinks are too high, lab partners doing all the hands-on work, field trips not being accessible; all are problems when it comes to fully involving a class that has a handicapped student among them. Since many of these things are out of any person’s control, there are other ways to adapt classes to make it more disability friendly. The first point was that lesson plans can be adapted to accommodate everyone, such as designing situations that allow for success in a normal classroom. Have alternate assignments that convey the same point, but are more disability friendly. Teachers can conduct pre-course interviews with each of the students, to get to know what they are interested in and it shows that the teachers are willing to do extra to help all students out. Another item that I have found personally very helpful and that is also mentioned in the article is computer assisted learning. This allows students to explore the concepts that they might not normally be able to work on. It is important to remember though, that the learning of the student needs to be paired equally with the student’s potential and shortcomings.

Date: March 3, 2003
Title: Career Decisions of K-12 Science Teachers: Factors Influencing Their
Decisions and Perceptions Toward Science Teaching
Decisions and Perceptions Toward Science Teaching
Author: Mariona Espinet, Patricia Simmons & Mary A. Atwater
Source: School Science and Mathematics, Vol. 92(2), February 1992, 84-91.
Review: This article discusses a survey, titled the Science Teaching
Questionnaire, that was given out to 113 teachers that attended a particular conference. The survey was in two parts, consisting of general demographic information and a questionnaire designed to collect information about factors which may have influenced a person's decision to become a science teacher. Of the teachers who responded to the survey, 32.7% were males and 67.3% were females with 95.5% being Caucasian. Almost half were Secondary science teachers, principally in Biology and Chemistry, 29.2% were middle school, 9.7% were Elementary Ed. And 12.4% were pre-college. The largest percent of the male science teachers selected their science teachers as the greatest influence to become a science teacher, while females had said that their mothers were their greatest influence. The questionnaire was split up into many more questions asking when they decided to become a teacher, when did they first decided they liked science, and when did they decide to enter science teaching. For the most part, these teachers had decided either in college or after graduation and had gone back for a teaching degree. As answers to why they entered science teaching, it was because teaching is important and interesting, they like science and they like to help people. The resulting find is that the majority of teachers view teaching as a career, but say that it has limited advancement possibilities.

Movie Review #1
Finding Forrester

Jamal is a black teenager in the Bronx whose two loves are writing and basketball. Everyone knows he’s great at basketball, but he hides his writing talent from his friends. He and his friends play on a court where a mysterious man known as “the Window” watches them from the apartment building across the street. On a dare from his friends, Jamal enters the Window’s apartment and is startled by the old man; he then runs off leaving his backpack containing his journals. The old man returns them, edited, and Jamal returns to the apartment to confront the critique that he receives for his writing. The old man turns out to be William Forrester, a recluse who wrote the Great American Novel, Avalon Landing, won the Pulitzer Prize for it, and then disappeared.

As this is happening socially, a prep school, officially interested in his test scores, grants him a scholarship to attend this highly regarded school. At the school he encounters a whole different world than he is used to and teachers, especially Professor Crawford, his English professor, a failed writer who delights in destroying the dreams of aspiring writers. As he excels in the classroom, he is also excelling on the basketball court, causing notice and encouragement from the school board but conflict between him and the captain of the basketball team, who is another black student.

As the movie progresses, Jamal and Forrester become friends and Forrester teaches Jamal about writing as Jamal helps him face the world again. They create an agreement, that none of the writing done in the apartment will ever leave the apartment and that Jamal can never question what Forrester has done with his life after the novel. As Jamal’s writing improves, Professor Crawford feels threatened and accuses Jamal of plagiarism because he doesn’t believe that a black man from the Bronx would ever be able to write as well as he does. Jamal had turned in a paper with the same title as a paper Forrester had published years before and Crawford brings it up to the school board for review. Due to the agreement, Jamal wouldn’t divulge the fact that he knows Forrester and so he is threatened with expulsion.

As the movie concludes, Forrester comes out of seclusion to read a paper at a writing contest that Jamal had written. This gets Jamal out of trouble with the school and it frees Forrester from the chains he had himself wrapped in. Soon after, Forrester dies from cancer and leaves Jamal with his second novel.

In this movie, there are really three teacher student relations, being Crawford to Jamal, Forrester to Jamal, and Jamal to Forrester. Crawford to Jamal is not a good relationship in any terms. Prof. Crawford does not support Jamal in his writing or any of the other students; instead he looks down upon them, puts them on the spot, and makes fun of them if they make a mistake. Crawford hated the fact that his students were surpassing his own abilities, and then tried to hold them back so they would not be able to achieve his own aspirations. A good teacher should always be supportive of student’s abilities and encourage them to do as well as they possible can.

The second relationship is between Forrester and Jamal, and this is what a teacher student relationship should consist of. Forrester does not instruct Jamal on how to be a good writer; instead he gives Jamal tips and just lets him write what comes to mind. One of the best phrases to come out of this movie is “Don’t think about what you are writing, just write what comes to mind”. Forrester gives Jamal honest opinions of his writing, and this enables Jamal to go beyond what he has been formally taught about writing in school and just write what he feels. Forrester is supportive and encouraging and makes the whole learning experience a joy to go through.

From the second relationship comes a third relationship where the student becomes the teacher and the teacher becomes the student. Jamal helps Forrester remember and realize all the exciting things there are in the world and encourage him to step out and explore again. Forrester feels free to open himself up as a writer again and to subject himself to the critique that Jamal has so willingly accepted from him. The interactions between Jamal and Forrester on each end make this a good teacher/student relationship.

Movie Review #2
Dead Poets Society

The Dead Poets Society is a movie based at a Vermont private boys’ school, focusing on a relationship between one English class and their teacher and how that teacher is able to open their minds to thoughts, ideas, and possibilities each of the students never considered. John Keating is one of the main characters who comes back to his old school as the teacher rather than the student to bring enlightenment upon his students. Keating ignores conventional teaching procedures and offers his students life-changing access to a brave new world of culture, ideas, and creativity. The story then turns on how the boys are affected by the counsel of the educator (whom they call "Captain," after Walt Whitman's elegy of Abraham Lincoln). Through their teacher, these boys are able to start to think for themselves and begin to do things that they have always wanted to do. They also restart a club that Keating had belonged to as a student, called the Dead Poets Society where they meet and read poetry and express themselves through words.

Keating is the kind of teacher that every student wishes they have during school; a grown-up kid that wants to be all that he can be, is wildly creative, and can express himself in interesting ways. Keating butts heads with the administration a lot during this movie because of his unconventional teaching methods that the old professors are uncomfortable with. I found one conversation to be a particularly good example of the rift between the old and new thinking. Keating begins by saying “I always thought that the idea of education was to think for yourself”. The old English teacher and current headmaster replies “Tradition, discipline, prepare them for college and the rest will be forgiven. The curriculum is set and proven; if you don’t question it, why would they?”

Keating begins the year by having the students open their poetry books to the introduction, read the article, and then rip it out because poetry is not about method or meter, but about emotion and movement and he wanted them to see that. He talks them out to the courtyard and has them walk around for a bit. All the students soon fall into an rhythmic step with others clapping along to their marching. Keating uses this to example conformity and how one person might choose a particular step and soon everyone is following along and not walking for themselves. Keating is able to earn the respect of his students and gets them to learn not only English and poetry lessons, but life lessons that they will carry with them.

Hard copy recieved? NO

Hard Copy Received: NO

Hard Copy Received: NO

Hard Copy Received: NO

Hard Copy Received: NO

Hard Copy Received: NO

Hard Copy Received: NO

Hard Copy Received: NO

Hard Copy Received: NO

Hard Copy Received: NO

Hard Copy Received: As appropriate