Date: February 5, 2003
Title: Pedagogical Content Knowledge Taxonomies
Author: William R. Veal and James G. MaKinster
Source: Electronic Journal of Science Education - V3 N4 - June 1999
Review: This article is about the combination of pedagogical practices and content
knowledge into a singular method. Science classes were once run with an overemphasis
of content knowledge. In the nineties teaching practices changed to be more
focused on pedagogy. Unfortunately, there has been an imbalance between the
two. This article attempts to correct this problem by implementing pedagogical
content knowledge taxonomies. The authors noted that by having prospective teachers
learn content in the context of teaching, the overall quality of standards increases.
“The key to distinguishing the knowledge base of teaching lies at the
intersection of content and pedagogy, in the capacity of a teacher to transform
the content knowledge he or she possesses into forms that are pedagogically
powerful and yet adaptive to the variations in ability and background presented
by the students (p. 15).” The article outlined methods in developing taxonomy
of pedagogical content knowledge for use by teachers. They have outlined and
explained three different types of taxonomies; general PCK, domain specific
PCK, and topic specific PCK. Finally, they talked about the implications for
science teacher education.
Week 2 (NSTA 2, Due 1/29/03)
Title: Realism versus Constructivism: Which is a More Appropriate Theory for
Addressing the Nature of Science in Science Education?
Author: Brian Campbell
Source:
In his article, “Realism versus Constructivism: Which is a More Appropriate
Theory for Addressing the Nature of Science in Science Education?” Brian
Campbell addresses education from both a constructivist as well as a realist
approach. It is obvious through the reading of the article that he agrees with
the more constructivist approach. He states that it is possible to more accurately
capture the nature of science as a constructivist rather than a realist. Importantly,
he defines what he feels a constructivist’s instruction would be like,
and that it is “hailed as a great improvement over traditional lecture/textbook
instruction.” Brian Campbell then breaks into the nature of science by
comparing the realist and constructivist approaches. In order to support the
constructivist viewpoint, he asks the playful question, “What do scientists
actually do?” He shows that scientists discover patterns. He explains
that there is no one-way to do science and that there is no single scientific
method. Without the students’ development of this pattern recognition
ability, they will have difficulty becoming scientists. In the realist approach,
there is a strong emphasis on memorization of facts and concepts. Brian Campbell
proved how this type of knowledge becomes inconsequential over time. He gives
the example of how people once believed that animals running under the ground
caused earthquakes and that volcano’s were proof of hell. If only a realist
approach was taken, people would have been satisfied with this explanation and
never investigated plate tectonics. Ultimately, we need to pass on the abilities
and the drive to figure out how the world works onto students in order to better
prepare students according the nature of science.
Week 3 (NSTA 3, Due 2/05/03)
Title: Constructing Scientific Knowledge in the Classroom
Author: Rosalind Driver, Hilary Asoko, John Leach, Eduardo Mortimer, and Philip
Scott.
Source:
Review: In the article “Constructing Scientific Knowledge in the Classroom,”
the authors take a look at personal and social constructivism and how they apply
in the classroom. The authors begin by giving a brief view of the nature of
science in the sense that scientific knowledge is “both symbolic in nature
and also socially negotiated.” They continued to state that scientific
knowledge is both constructed and communicated through “culture and social
institutions of science.” Ultimately they make the notion that the role
of a science educator is to help a learner understand how knowledge is created
and verified rather than just trying to understand the world from the get go.
They then talked about how an individual learns science. It must be done through
a process that Piaget called equilibration, or a proce4ss of evolving current
schemata to incorporate new data. It was also discussed that having others opinions
at the learner‚s disposal is integral to the evolution of these pre-existing
schemes. They then continue onto social construction of knowledge. There is
a very important point brought up about social constructivism: “If knowledge
construction is seen solely as an individual process, then this is similar to
what has traditionally been identified as discovery learning. If, however, learners
are to be given access to the knowledge systems of science, the process of knowledge
construction must go beyond personal empirical enquiry.” Ultimately it
is found that learning science requires both personal and social processes.
The article then provides two examples of constructivism in a classroom situation
where students make predictions and the teacher acts as a guide and assists
the students in their learning.
Week 4 (NSTA 4, Due 2/12/03)
Title: The Effect of Method and Format on the Responses of Subjects to a Piagetian
Reasoning Problem
Author: John R. Staver and Ernest T. Pascarella.
Source:
Review: In the article, “The Effect of Method and Format on the Responses
of Subjects to a Piagetian Reasoning Problem,” the authors describe their
findings on an experiment in order to judge whether or not the method or format
of assessment has any effect on the results. The experimenters used a Piagetian
reasoning problem in order to see if subjects could recognize patterns. The
test was delivered by four different methods: 1. Individual clinical interview,
2. Paper and pencil problem with illustration following a group presentation
of the task, 3. Group administered paper and pencil instrument with illustration,
and 4. Group administered paper and pencil instrument without illustration.
Each method included four formats: 1. Completion answer with essay justification,
2. Completion answer with multiple-choice justification, 3. Multiple-choice
answer with essay justification, and 4. Multiple-choice answer with multiple-choice
justification. Ultimately, through regression analysis, they showed that neither
the method nor he format accounted for significant variance in performance.
They stated then, “a finding of non-significance indicates that much of
the concern voiced by researchers about traditional and alternative methods
of assessing Piagetian reasoning patterns may be much ado over nothing.”
Finally, they talked about possible implications for teachers. First of all
they state that teachers are able to use multiple methods and formats of teaching
and assessment in order to encourage more advanced reasoning. However, we are
warned that teachers must still us caution by making sure that the tasks still
pertain to the specific reasoning pattern being taught. Secondly, it is stated
that the teacher must determine the detail of information desired from the assessment
before designing their formats and scoring system in order to get accurate results.
Week 5 (NSTA 5, Due 2/19/03)
Date: February 25, 2003
Title: “Equity, Excellence & ‘Just Plain Good Teaching’”
Authors: April L. Gardner, Cheryl L. Mason, and Marsha Lakes Matyas
Reference: Gardner, Mason, and Matyas “Equity, Excellence & ‘Just
Plain Good Teaching’” The American Biology Teacher, Volume 51, no.
2, February 1989
Review: This article writes about the lack of a female or minority presence
in the scientific community and science courses as well as what we, as science
teachers, can do about it. Historically, women have been less likely to participate
in the sciences. The reasoning that many possess involves responses such as,
“I’m no good in science and math” or “Science and math
are not important for my future.” Dispositions such as these are derived
from a lack of confidence in math and science abilities, lack of support from
parents and peers, and a lack of exposure to careers and/or role models in the
scientific community. By not encouraging women to become involved in the sciences,
we are depriving the nation of 50% of its potential population. The article
then talks about what teachers can do to alleviate this deficiency. First of
all, the authors recommend some strategies. They mention that we should be aware
of our attitudes concerning our own subtle biases like allowing males to participate
more since they are more apt to volunteer. They also suggest using more hands
on activities where males and females can both participate preventing “passive
non-participation.” Finally, they suggest utilizing small group discussion
and activities to allow plenty of opportunities for everyone to get involved
in learning. During these activities, as the authors remind us, we should use
gender-neutral language. This can be done by using he or she in place of him
or his, and also by helping to dissolve previous student possessed biases like
the typical “mad scientist” stereotype of a scientist. Most importantly,
the authors discuss introducing female and/or minority role models to the class.
This will help give exposure to career opportunities in the science related
fields as well as strengthen the notion that women are just as able to succeed
in science and men are.
Week 6 (NSTA 6, Due 2/26/03)
Date: February 25, 2003
Title: “Equity, Excellence & ‘Just Plain Good Teaching’”
Authors: April L. Gardner, Cheryl L. Mason, and Marsha Lakes Matyas
Reference: Gardner, Mason, and Matyas “Equity, Excellence & ‘Just
Plain Good Teaching’” The American Biology Teacher, Volume 51, no.
2, February 1989
Review: This article writes about the lack of a female or minority presence
in the scientific community and science courses as well as what we, as science
teachers, can do about it. Historically, women have been less likely to participate
in the sciences. The reasoning that many possess involves responses such as,
“I’m no good in science and math” or “Science and math
are not important for my future.” Dispositions such as these are derived
from a lack of confidence in math and science abilities, lack of support from
parents and peers, and a lack of exposure to careers and/or role models in the
scientific community. By not encouraging women to become involved in the sciences,
we are depriving the nation of 50% of its potential population. The article
then talks about what teachers can do to alleviate this deficiency. First of
all, the authors recommend some strategies. They mention that we should be aware
of our attitudes concerning our own subtle biases like allowing males to participate
more since they are more apt to volunteer. They also suggest using more hands
on activities where males and females can both participate preventing “passive
non-participation.” Finally, they suggest utilizing small group discussion
and activities to allow plenty of opportunities for everyone to get involved
in learning. During these activities, as the authors remind us, we should use
gender-neutral language. This can be done by using he or she in place of him
or his, and also by helping to dissolve previous student possessed biases like
the typical “mad scientist” stereotype of a scientist. Most importantly,
the authors discuss introducing female and/or minority role models to the class.
This will help give exposure to career opportunities in the science related
fields as well as strengthen the notion that women are just as able to succeed
in science and men are.
Week 7 (NSTA 7) Due 3/05/03
Date: March 3, 2003
Title: “But That’s Just Good Teaching! The Case for Culturally Relevant
Pedagogy”
Author: Gloria Ladson-Billings
Reference: Theory Into Practice, Volume 34, Number 3, Summer 1995
Review: Ladson-Billings wrote about the deficiency of minority academic performance
in this article. Mostly, instead of shelling out a number of striking facts,
she offered solutions based off of research. It comes as a shock to most people,
but what she suggests usually sounds like good teaching. “Instead of some
‘magic bullet’ or intricate formula and steps for instruction, some
members of my audience are shocked to hear what seems to them like some rather
routine teaching strategies.” She questions, however, why so little of
this good teaching seems to be going on in classrooms dominantly populated with
African Americans. Her main goal of this article is to describe what has been
identified as culturally relevant, and what role this plays in the education
of minorities. She first writes about the linking between school and culture.
She mentions, “Educators traditionally have attempted to insert culture
into the education, instead of inserting education into the culture.”
In order to have culturally relevant pedagogy, Ladson-Billings notes three criteria
that must be present. These are that students must have academic success, while
maintaining their cultural integrity and competence, and finally, students must
become critically conscience in order to challenge the status quo. As for the
first of these criteria Ladson-Billings states, “The trick of culturally
relevant teaching is to get students to ‘choose’ academic excellence.”
By directing more positive attention to minorities, they will develop a love
of learning instead of distaste due to neglect. The second, cultural competence
is equally important so that while learning, the student doesn’t compromise
their traditional values, thereby loosing their self-image. Finally, critical
consciousness is an important part of cultural relevance. In order to help students
develop into members of the community, they must develop “a broader sociopolitical
consciousness that allows them to critique the cultural norms, values, morals,
and institutions that produce and maintain social inequities.” Ladson-Billings
closes the article by writing about implications. Ultimately, it is impossible
to make a final judgment as to what should be done without further study of
effective methods of promoting cultural relevant education. In the mean-time,
her suggestions should be taken in order to provide every child the opportunity
of a full and meaningful education.
Week 8 (NSTA 8) Due 3/19/03
Date: March 19, 2003
Title: “Extra Credit, Extra Science”
Author: John R. Cannon
Reference: Science and Children
Review: This article is motivated by a survey of elementary teachers that showed
that over 25% of them felt that they were not very well prepared to teach the
sciences. In fact, most of them felt better prepared in reading and language
arts instruction. It was recommended that prospective teacher become more knowledgeable
in the sciences and automatically; naturally, the children would then become
more knowledgeable. However, this is not often the truth. John R Cannon recommends
a extenuation of just becoming knowledgeable. He tries to answer the question
“how might an instructor increase the science content covered in an elementary
science methods course without reducing time spent on pedagogical issues?”
He offers the suggestion of an extra credit approach. Students of his methods
course scored an average of only 63% on a scientific literacy exam before the
implementation of this extra credit approach. He recommends that the methods
teacher offer a scientific demonstration at the end of the class and as an extra
credit assignment, students could complete a Vee diagram. “The Vee diagram
encourages learners to make observations in three areas: thinking, doing, and
studying the focus question of the demonstration.” At the beginning of
the next class, the instructor can go over the explanation of the demonstration
and therefore enhancing the students familiarity with the scientific process.
Making these students confront their misconceptions is a better way than merely
lecturing on the subject.
Date: March 26, 2003
Title: “Complying with Science”
Author: James T. Biehle
Reference: Theory Into Practice, Volume 34, Number 3, Summer 1995
Review: Biehle wrote about the difficulties that handicapped students have in
the classroom; particularly science classrooms. In one example, a handicapped
student needed to rely on her lab partner to operate the equipment being used
in order to successfully complete the activity. This, in turn, made the student
feel less a part of her class. The main focus of this article is around The
Americans with Disabilities and its evolving process. ADAAG, or the Uniform
Federal Accessibility Standards that relate specially to science facilities
requires the facility planner to make specific judgments about the ease of accessibility
of facilities and ease of use of equipment for all students. He then spoke at
length about lab benches and the various necessary dimensions required to be
considered handicapped accessible. Also, “at least five percent of the
stations (but not less than one) must be accessible.” Overall this article
wrote about the need for change in classrooms in order to provide the most opportunity
for all students to have a complete and fulfilling education.
Week 10 (NSTA 10) Due 4/02/03
Date: April 4, 2003
Title: “Can Teachers Be Trusted To Improve Teaching?”
Author: Dale Mann
Reference: PHI DELTA KAPPAN September 1995
Review: The answer to the question of “Can teachers be trusted to improve
teaching?” seems to be a solid “yes.” This is largely due
to the IMPACT II program. In this article, Dale Mann describes the IMPACT II
program and the results from its implementation. The idea behind the program
is a simple one; rely on teachers to collaborate and improve education. Traditionally,
teachers have been approached by the administration and the state to implement
different programs that direct teachers to use certain methods and to conform
to certain standards in order to deliver an effective and extensive education
to their students. However, the teachers themselves have little to no say about
the program. The IMPACT II program is different. This program offers good teachers
grants in order to collaborate with other good teachers in order to improve
education by offering their input of ideas and methods of teaching. “Anyone
who is any good at any job figures out ways to do it better.” This is
the rational behind the program. The teacher then packages their idea and is
connected to other good teachers to share this idea. Through this type of networking,
education can be transformed easily. It also creates gateways for teachers to
continue contact and collaboration about improving education. But, does the
IMPACT II program work? After all, if the program is ineffective, it is just
a waste of time and money for an already heavily budgeted educational system.
The program was founded around 1980 and results appeared as soon as 1982. Evaluators
found that the program recognizes outstanding teachers giving much needed moral
support to a profession that is often lonely and frustrating. The program also
connected outstanding teachers successfully by increasing the sense of collegiality
among the teachers. Classroom instruction was improved by the access of new
ideas for presenting material and managing classrooms. The program itself also
showed that it worked among diverse settings. Both urban and rural schools showed
improvement. The program also kept good teachers in the profession. Teaching
can be a frustrating and good teachers often go into administration or other
careers. The program provides opportunity for leadership roles and professional
growth. Finally, the program has lasting effects. Unlike most programs that
phase out in a very short time and a new program needs to be implemented, IMPACT
II is a continuous system of educational improvement. The success of the IMPACT
II program over its history has shown that we can, and should trust teachers
to improve education.
Week 11-14 (Others) Due 4/09/03 + 4/16/03 + 4/23/03 + 4/30/03 etc.
Date: February 7, 2003
Title: Those Who Understand Knowledge Growth in Teaching
Author: Lee S. Shulman
Source: Educational Researcher, 15(2), 4-14.
Review: This article explores the differences between content knowledge and
pedagogy. The author thinks that the teacher certification and evaluation is
on how teachers manage their classrooms, organize activities, allocate time,
and how to plan lessons. The author thinks that the education boards have questions
about the lessons being taught. This has spurred the author to do research in
the area figuring out how teachers take a piece of text and transform their
understanding of it into instruction that their students can understand.
Week 2 (NSTA 2, Due 1/29/03)
Date: February 22, 2003
Standard covered: NSTA #2
Title: Ten myths of science: Reexamining what we think we know about the nature
of science. Author: McComas, W. (1996).
Source: School Science and Mathematics, 96, 10-16.
Review: This article addresses and attempts to refute some of the most widespread
and most infamous misconceptions held by students regarding science. The article
discusses ten myths which include: hypotheses become theories which become laws,
a hypothesis is an educated guess, a general and universal scientific method
exists, evidence accumulated carefully will result in sure knowledge, science
and its methods provide absolute proof, science is procedural more than creative,
science and its methods can answer all questions, scientists are particularly
objective, experiments and the principle route to scientific knowledge, and
all work in science is reviewed to keep the process honest. The author argues
that not only students fall to these fallacies but the teachers fall as well.
Week 3 (NSTA 3, Due 2/05/03)
Date: February 22, 2003
Standard covered: NSTA #3
Title: Dialectical constraints to the discursive practices of a high school
physics community.
Author: Tobin, K., McRobbie, C. and Anderson, D. (1997)
Source: Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 34, 5, pp. 491 - 508.
Review: This article explores a case study of a teacher and his struggle to
teach in a manner that attempts to align him to discursive teaching practices.
Discursive teaching practices include talking, writing, cognitive, argumentation,
and representation; in other words, to teach science as an inquiry. The purpose
of this report is to explore the phenomenon that restricts constructivism in
a classroom. There are three specific experiences that the researchers observed
and commented about. The issues of major restriction included time constraints,
the event of students feeling intimidated for bringing forward challenges when
their basis for their challenge is their everyday commonsense knowledge, and
a failure on the teachers part to recognize when a student is appealing to him
as a higher authority in an attempt to reason through a problem that neither
the teacher understands or the student.
Week 4 (NSTA 4, Due 2/12/03)
Week 5 (NSTA 5, Due 2/19/03)
Week 6 (NSTA 6, Due 2/26/03)
Week 7 (NSTA 7) Due 3/05/03
Week 8 (NSTA 8) Due 3/19/03
Week 10 (NSTA 10) Due 4/02/03
Week 11-14 (Others) Due 4/09/03 + 4/16/03 + 4/23/03 + 4/30/03 etc.
Date: February 22, 2003
Movie Title: October Sky
Directed by: Joe Johnston
Analysis: “October Sky” tells the story of four boys in a poverty-stricken
corner of West Virginia who are determined to build their own rocket. The movie
takes place during the Cold War of the late 1950’s at a time when Russia
is beginning to seemingly pull ahead in the space race. The movie is seen through
the eyes of their leader, young Homer Hickham (Jake Gyllenhaal), who sees the
Russia satellite Sputnik fly across the October Sky and starts reading the science
fiction of Jules Verne. Homer is a good student, but math and science are his
weak points. He is the one with the original vision of building a rocket. He
knows he needs help. He breaks all of the social rules in the school lunch room
by approaching the class brain, an outcast named Quentin (Chris Owen).
They talk about rocket fuel, nozzles, velocity. Two other boys get involved:
Roy Lee (William Lee Scott) and O'Dell (Chad Lindberg). Their first rocket blows
a hole in the picket fence in front of Homer's house. The second one narrowly
misses some miners at the coal mine, and Homer's dad John (Chris Cooper), the
mine supervisor, forbids further experimentation and confiscates all of the
rocket stuff from the basement. But the kids labor on in an isolated patch of
woods, building a shelter to protect themselves from exploding rockets. They
talk a machinist at the mine into building them a rocket casing of stronger
steel, and they use alcohol from a moon-shiner as an ingredient in the rocket
fuel.
The tension in the movie is not between the boys and their rocket, but between
the boys and those who think that miners' sons belong down in the mines and
not up in the sky. Homer's father is not a bad man; he fights for the jobs of
his men, he rescues several in a near-disaster, he injures his eye in another
emergency. He wants Homer to follow in his footsteps. Throughout the entire
movie, Homer and his father square off. However, Homer’s teacher (Laura
Dern) encourages him and spurs him on to reach his dreams. She feels her life
will have failed if some of the kids don't get out and realize their dreams.
The science and math that she is teaching the boys eventually helps get the
boys out of serious trouble. Homer uses trigonometry and science to argue their
innocence in a forest fire incident that they are accused of.
The boys take their rocket to the county science fair and they win. Homer takes
the rocket to the National Science Fair in Indianapolis and they win again.
This is the boys’ dream and their ticket out of Coalwood, West Virginia.
In the end, the whole town, including Homer’s father pull together and
help Homer to win the National Science Fair. The boys get their academic scholarship
which is virtually unheard of at this point in time.
From a teacher’s perspective, this movie represents the power and influence
that a teacher has to impact a student’s life. This movie also shows that
sometimes the best students will come from seemingly impossible areas. Like
these boys, many students love science and love to explore the world. However,
when a student comes under the impression that science is worthless and that
they should pursue other ventures, an outside influence like Homer’s teacher
needs to come in and encourage the young scientist to pursue his or her dream.
Date: February 22, 2003
Movie Title: Finding Forrestor
Directed by: Gus Van Sant
Analysis:
Newcomer Rob Brown plays Jamal Wallace, a Bronx high school student whose stunning
achievement test scores and standout performance on the basketball court earn
him the notice of officials at the exclusive Mailor-Callow Prep School, where
he is offered a full scholarship as a junior. Jamal's mother and brother (Busta
Rhymes) are thrilled by the offer; realizing that going to Mailor will allow
him to advance his prospects, Jamal agrees to attend. Although his streetwise
background makes him a social outsider amidst a sea of rich, pampered kids,
Jamal's performance on the court and in the classroom earns him the respect
of many of his teachers and peers, including Claire (Anna Paquin), the pretty
daughter of the head of Mailor's board of directors.
Meanwhile, as a result of a dare, Jamal inadvertently discovers the whereabouts
of the reclusive author William Forrester (Sean Connery), a former Pulitzer
Prize winner who disappeared from the public eye after writing "the Great
20th Century Novel", Avalon Landing. Forrester owns an apartment overlooking
the blacktop where Jamal and his friends play pickup games. One day after making
a brazen statement, the young man is forced to back up his words by sneaking
into Forrester's apartment to steal something. He is caught in the act and accidentally
leaves behind his backpack which contains his journals. Forrester writes comments
in the notebooks including the phrase "constipated writing" and returns
the backpack. Thus begins a peculiar mentor/student relationship, with Jamal
agreeing not to reveal Forrester's whereabouts in return for Forrester's instruction
in the craft of writing. There is one condition, however: Forrester tells Jamal
that he can ask no questions about him, his family, or why there was only one
book.
Jamal gets in trouble at school when one of his teachers accuses him of forgery
and Jamal is threatened to be kicked out of school after Jamal turned in a paper
with a title that was on one of Forrester’s papers. Jamal did not want
to break the oath that he made with Forrester so he did not tell let anyone
know that Forrester gave Jamal permission to use his title. In dramatic fashion
at the end of the story, Forrester emerges after 50 years of seclusion and changes
the minds of the teachers who want to kick Jamal out of the school. The story
ends with Forrester dying and leaving the copy to his second book for Jamal.
From a teacher’s perspective, this movie showed the value and power of
a mentor relationship that can be developed between a student and the teacher.
A mentor relationship goes beyond the realm of teaching; a mentor helps the
student walk through the processes it takes to get where the student needs to
be. In the movie, Forrester mentored young Jamal in writing. At the beginning
of the mentorship, Jamal was having trouble starting his papers. Forrester sat
directly across from him and showed Jamal how he started papers. Forrester even
helped Jamal start his opening paragraph. After this, Jamal was able to write
his paper. This is a powerful way to teach. Many students have the raw skills
that are needed to be a writer, scientist, or whatever subject they are good
at. However, students can become frustrated and turned off without proper instruction
which may take the teacher going through the exact same processes that the student
is going through.
Another value that this movie displayed was the affect that a teacher’s
stubborn pride has on a student. The writing teacher that Jamal had at the Mailer
school did not like Jamal from the beginning. He thought Jamal forged his papers
because he was a young black kid from the Bronx. In class, the teacher attempted
to make Jamal look like a fool and Jamal ended up making the teacher look like
a fool. The teacher became angry and this is point in the movie when Jamal’s
status at the school became in jeopardy. This teacher almost ruined a young
student’s career because he could not admit he was wrong. A good teacher
can admit when he does not have the answer to the question and should encourage
a student who displays more knowledge than he does.
Date: March 5, 2003
Title: Those Who Understand: Knowledge Growth in Teaching.
Author: Lee S. Shulman
Source: Educational Researchers, February, 1986, 4-14.
Review: Mr. Shulman from Stanford University addresses the common conception
that “He who can, does. He who cannot, teaches,” as stated by George
Bernard Shaw. This shows that teachers are often not seen as professionals.
There is an assumed of lack of knowledge and incompetence about those who are
teachers. He then goes on to discuss the history of perceptions of teacher knowledge.
In the late 1800s teacher examinations focused mostly on content knowledge.
About 5 to 10% of the questions on those examinations focused on pedagogical
knowledge. Knowledge of teaching theories and methods were important but were
noticeably secondary to subject knowledge. In the 1980s there was a shift towards
more focus on pedagogical knowledge. It wasn’t as important to know content
knowledge, as it was to know how to teach. This kind of attitude was based on
research. Because it was based on research and scientific principles this was
thought to be the best way to prepare teachers to teach. However, what those
reports on studies failed to take into account was the content knowledge, and
this is the point that the author is trying to make. These studies don’t
account for the fact that content knowledge is needed along with pedagogical
knowledge. The author then talks about the history of content and pedagogy in
academia. In medieval times, a “master” or “doctor”
was only given those titles if they had the skills and ability to teach their
trade or subject. The terms “master” and “doctor” are
still in existence in our universities today. In both time periods they are
the highest distinctions one could receive. However, in the present time they
seem to have lost the added definition of the ability to teach a particular
subject or trade. Mr. Shulman then goes on to discuss what he thinks should
be the different types of teacher knowledge. He states the three main ones as
content knowledge, pedagogical content knowledge, and curricular knowledge.
HE thinks a teacher should have content knowledge in their specific area. They
should also know how and to best teach that content knowledge, and teachers
should also have a good knowledge of what types of curriculum are available
and which are better. These three main types of content knowledge can then each
be further broken down into prepositional knowledge, case knowledge, and strategic
knowledge. Propositional knowledge is considered to be principles, maxims, and
norms. For instance one example would be “Never smile before Christmas.”
Case knowledge is considered to be prototypes, precedents, and parables. They
are specific examples of propositional knowledge. Strategic knowledge comes
about when principles collide or the precedents of cases are not compatible.
However, Mr. Shulman does go on to say that strategic knowledge or judgement
may just be the combination of propositional knowledge, case knowledge and experience
not an actual third type of knowledge. He thinks that future teacher examinations
should address these three main types of teacher knowledge in order to more
effective access our teachers. He then offers a revision to George Bernard Shaw’s
statement. “Those who can, do. Those who understand, teach.”
Week 2 (NSTA 2, Due 1/29/03)
Date: March 5, 2003
Title: Ten Myths of Science: Reexamining What We Think We Know About the Nature
of Science
Author: William F. McComas
Source: School Science and Mathematics, Vol. 96(1), January 1996, 10-15.
Review: William F. McComas discusses ten myths or misconceptions about the nature
of science. This is a list: 1) Hypotheses Become Theories Which Become Laws,
2) A Hypothesis is an Educated Guess, 3) A General and Universal Scientific
Method Exists, 4) Evidence Accumulated Carefully Will Result in Sure Knowledge,
5) Science and its Methods Provide Absolute Proof, 6) Science Is Procedural
More Than Creative, 7) Science and its Methods Can Answer All Questions, 8)
Scientists are Particularly Objective, 9) Experiments are the Principle Route
to Scientific Knowledge, and 10) All Work in Science is Reviewed to Keep the
Process Honest. In response to the first myth, he says that theories are explanations
of laws. They do not and cannot become laws. There is not a hierarchical nature
to them. In response to the second myth, the author recommends that the term
be discarded due to the fact that it has at least three definitions. Different
terminology should be used to clear up the confusion between the different uses
of the word. Myth 3 is about the so-called “Scientific Method” that
most students are taught. In actuality, most scientists do not adhere to this
method. There is no one method that all scientists use. When trying to solve
problems, they use their imagination, creativity, previous knowledge, and persistence
just as all other problem-solvers do. This myth may eventually be abandoned
since newer texts are doing away with the “Scientific Method” entirely
or additionally discussing the methods of science. The author’s response
to myth four is about discovering laws and theories through induction. Through
the process of induction two equally qualified scientists looking at the same
evidence would arrive at the same law or theory. This does not occur in reality.
Laws and theories do not come about through a mechanical movement through several
steps. The final jump from a mass of evidence to a conclusion requires creativity
and imagination. Myth five addresses the idea of absolute proof. This does not
exist in science. Science is tentative in that something is considered true,
but only as long as there is continuing supporting evidence. When there is evidence
that does not support a law or theory, they are often revised or abandoned completely.
In addressing myth six, the author gives the example of most school laboratories
being more about verification then about actually discovering something. This
leads students to believe that there is no creativity in science and may often
cause them exclude science as a career because of this lack of creativity. In
regards to myth seven, he basically says that science and scientists should
not and cannot answer questions about moral, ethical, aesthetic, social, and
metaphysical issues. There is no way to scientifically falsify those types of
ideas. “Scientists are no different in their level of objectivity than
are other professionals,” is the main idea behind the author’s response
to myth eight. Scientists do have preconceived notions and biases about the
ways in which the world works, and this does affect how, why, and what type
of observations they make. Mr. McComas cites astronomy and Darwin’s theory
of evolution as two examples where experimentation is not the way in which scientific
knowledge was obtained. These are two areas where experimentation is not possible
because if of an inability to control variables. The final myth about science
is about scientific work being verified to keep scientists honest. This is supposed
to occur, but is not really feasible. Most scientists are too busy and there
are not enough research funds available to simply verify someone else’s
work. The focus is more on producing new information.
Week 3 (NSTA 3, Due 2/05/03)
Date: March 5, 2003
Title: Develop Concepts, Question by Question
Author: Marylou Dantonio
Source: The Science Teacher, May 1987, 46-49.
Review: The author discusses using different types of questions to develop students’
understanding of science. She talks about focusing questions which are those
that begin with who, what, when, where, which, why, and how. These questions
result in students needing more time to think about their answers as opposed
to yes-no questions. This problem can be resolved by using wait-time. There
are several types of focusing questions. Refocusing questions are used if the
students are talking off of the subject. Clarification questions help students
define words and state examples that they have used in their own answers. Verification
questions let learners give evidence for their ideas. The final type of question
is support questions. These help students link inferences that they have made
about observations or recalled information. The author thinks that science teachers
need to greatly improve their questioning techniques in order to be effective
teachers.
Week 4 (NSTA 4, Due 2/12/03)
Date: March 5, 2003
Title: Human Intelligence: The Model Is the Message
Author: Robert J. Sternberg
Source: Science, Vol. 230, December 1985, 1111-1118.
Review: Mr. Sternberg begins by saying that the models that are used in developing
theories have hindered research into human intelligence. The three main questions
that need to be addressed are: “What is the relation of intelligence to
the internal world of the individual? What is the relation of intelligence to
the external world of the individual? What is the relation of intelligence to
the experience of the individual?” There are six main types of models.
They are geographic, computational, anthropological, biological, sociological,
and political. He then goes on to discuss the positive and negative aspects
of each of them. The geographic model is associated with Gall and phrenology.
The computational model is associated with Jensen, Hunt, Sternberg, and Simon.
It considers the brain to be a computer and intelligence to be a computer program.
The anthropological model says that intelligence is either partly or completely
determined by the environment or culture that an individual lives and is often
referred to as contextualism. Piaget is the most known proponent of the biological
model, which describes intelligence as an evolving system. He describes periods
of intellectual development that build upon one another. The sociological model
is associated with Vygotsky and is in direct opposition to Piaget and the biological
model. Sternberg, the author, argues for the political model. He does so because
he believes that this model attempts to address all three of the previously
mentioned questions simultaneously and incorporates parts of all five of the
other models.
Week 5 (NSTA 5, Due 2/19/03)
Date: March 5, 2003
Title: The Effect of Method and Format on the Responses of Subjects to a Piagetian
Reasoning Problem
Author: John R. Staver and Ernest T. Pascarella
Source: Journal of Research in Science Teaching, Vol. 21, No. 3, 1984, 305-314.
Review: This is a journal article in which researchers studied subjects reasoning
levels through a Piagetian task. They used four different methods and four different
formats of assessment for this study. They were looking to see if the differing
methods or formats affected students’ how well they performed. There were
16 groups with each group being randomly assigned to a “cell” in
the 4X4 factorial design. The researchers found that with the exception of one
group, the type of method and format seemed to have no significant effect on
their performance of the task. This apparent nonsignificance may in fact be
significance. It can be used to show that as long as the task is well thought
out, then a simple paper and pencil assessment is suitable. If this were true,
then it would simplify the testing of subjects reasoning levels considerably.
Week 6 (NSTA 6, Due 2/26/03)
Date: March 5, 2003
Title: Achieving Scientific Literacy Through a Curriculum Connected with Mathematics
and Technology
Author: Mary Hamm
Source: School Science and Mathematics, Vol. 92(1), January 1992, 6-9.
Review: This article discusses scientific literacy in the fact that it includes
the three areas of mathematics, science, and technology. When comparing American
students to students from other countries, it is shown that we are behind them
at most grade levels and the farther along our students are in school the farther
behind they are. Teachers need to promote scientific literacy among our students
to help decrease this gap. Many students have difficulty in seeing how these
three areas are related and how they all depend upon each other. As teachers
we need to be able to combine content knowledge with pedagogical knowledge.
The author lists seven steps that can be taken to improve the success of American
students as compared to international students in the areas of science, mathematics,
and technology. They are: 1) Improve the teaching of science, mathematics, and
technology, 2) Attend to the importance of students in the learning process,
3) Incorporate innovative and alternative teaching and learning strategies,
4) Develop new curriculum models, 5) Extend learning beyond the classroom, 6)
Provide students equal access to knowledge, and 7) Involve teachers actively
in the learning process. The author also argues for a movement towards a connected
Science/Mathematics/Technology curriculum. Through this students would hopefully
be more able to see and understand the interrelations between them. They would
then be better able to think scientifically and mathematically. The author believes
that if a new attitude towards the teaching of these areas is adopted, then
there is no reason that all American students can’t become scientifically
literate.
Week 7 (NSTA 7) Due 3/05/03
Date: March 6, 2003
Title: But That’s Just Good Teaching! The Case for Culturally Relevant
Pedagogy
Author: Gloria Ladson-Billings
Source: Theory Into Practice, Vol. 34, No. 3, Summer 1995, 159-165.
Review: This article discusses a study of eight teachers who were thought to
be teaching in culturally relevant ways. The article goes on to show why these
teachers are thought of in this way. It describes some of the tactics that they
employ in order to engage their African-American students. Even though most
of the teachers themselves are white, they find ways to relate the material
to what interests the students. They also try to create a community of learners
and are seen in the community and bring parents and relatives into the classroom
also.
Week 8 (NSTA 8) Due 3/19/03
Date: March 21, 2003
Title: Extra Credit, Extra Science
Author: John R. Cannon
Source: Science and Children, September, 1996, 38-39.
Review: In a 1990 survey about 25% of elementary teachers felt not well prepared
to teach science. One way to increase the science content covered in elementary
science methods courses is to use an “extra credit” approach. A
demonstration is done in the class. Then the students have to fill out a Vee
Diagram, and also perform the demonstration at home again. They must then explain
in scientific terms to friends, professors, etc. The Vee Diagram encourages
observations in three areas: thinking, doing, and studying the focus question
of the demonstration. The diagrams are then evaluated and points are assigned
based upon accuracy and clarity of the explanation.
Date: May 9, 2003
Title: Making Science Special students, special needs
Author: Jeffrey D. Weld
Source: The Science Teacher, 34-38.
Review: This article discusses ways in which physically handicapped students
can be helped in participating in lab activities better. The author discusses
ways to improve field trip experiences. He also suggests lab buddies, creating
a flexible room, customizing lab equipment, adapting the lesson, conducting
pre-course interviews, involving the class, using computer-assisted learning,
and using a team approach as possible ways in which to help physically handicapped
students more fully participate in lab activities. This is important because
as science teachers, we continually advocate lab activities as being integral
aspects of learning science.
Week 10 (NSTA 10) Due 4/02/03
Date: May 9, 2003
Title: Who Aspires to Teach? A Descriptive Study of Preservice Teachers
Author: James E. Green and Roy A. Weaver
Source: Contemporary Education, Vol. 63, No. 3, Spring 1992, 234-238.
Review: This article discusses what types of students decide to go into teaching
as a career. Some of the influences are working conditions, the influence of
a “significant other” by which they mean a former teacher, altruism
or commitment to serve others, and gender and choice. Then the authors describe
the methods they used in collecting data such as the subjects, the survey instrument,
and the procedure. They also then published their results with respect to demographic
characteristics and personal characteristics. In conclusion, their high school
teachers influenced more students than anyone else. Socioeconomic class produced
the fewest differences in relation to who decides to be a teacher. The profession
needs more males in the elementary grades and more minorities at all grade levels.
Week 11-14 (Others) Due 4/09/03 + 4/16/03 + 4/23/03 + 4/30/03 etc.
Title: Misconceptions Die Hard
Author: Joseph I. Stepans, Ronald E. Beiswenger, Steven Dyche
Source: The Science Teacher, September 1996
Review: This article is about a study that was done to show that students’
abilities in scientific literacy are lacking. Although many of the older students
in the study knew more of the scientific vocabulary their understanding was
not much better than the younger students tested. “Some students simply
reject explanations that are in conflict with their beliefs or that they do
not understand. They opt to retain a misconception that makes sense to them.”
The article addressed a few strategies to help combat misconceptions. One way
was to choose textbooks more carefully, however not all teachers have this opportunity.
A second strategy was through the students doing labs. This allows the students
to figure things out for themselves. The other strategy that I particularly
liked was to write down all the misconceptions and use them in future teachings.
Week 2 (NSTA 2, Due 1/29/03)
Title: Ten Myths of Science
Author: William F. McComas
Source: School Science and Mathematics, V.96(1), January 1996
Review: This article focuses on myths in the area of science. One of the myths
involves hypotheses, theories, and laws. McComas makes a statement that the
definition of a hypothesis should be abandoned. I am not sure I agree with this,
although it’s definition is probably one of the most misused in science,
it should not be abandoned. Another of the myths is that there is a universal
scientific method. A the article make a good point that the methods of science
are the same as for all problem solvers, meaning there isn’t just one.
The other big myth that the article addresses is that science provides absolute
proofs. The article concludes with a call for teachers to help increase scientific
literacy.
Week 3 (NSTA 3, Due 2/05/03)
Title: Constructing Scientific Knowledge in the Classroom
Author(s): Driver, Asoko, Leach, Mortimer, and Scott
Source: Educational Researcher; October, 1994
Review: This article examines the view that scientific knowledge is constructed,
not transmitted. Knowledge is built up by the student by a variety of “research
traditions” in science education. The teacher has two roles in the students
learning process. The first is to introduce new ideas and provide support for
the students to interpret these ideas for themselves. The second is to listen
and determine how the ideas are being interpreted and give students information
for further understanding. The constructivist view of education is more of a
social nature. The authors conclude that science must be taught both on a social
and personal level though.
Week 4 (NSTA 4, Due 2/12/03)
Tilte: Human Intelligence: The Model is the Message
Author: Robert J. Sternberg
Source: Science, V. 230 December 1985
Review: Sternberg examines three main questions of human intelligenc and the
models that correspond to them. The First of these questions involves the the
relation of intelligence and the internal world of the individual. The first
model associated with this question is called the geographic model. This model
is based on an assumption that intelligence is related to the shape of a persons
head, phrenology. The second model, the computational model, involves understanding
intelligence in terms of the information processing that people do when thinking
intelligently. The second question of human intelligence relates intelligence
to the external world of the individual. The model for that has been used to
answer this question is the anthropological model, intelligence is wholly or
partly determined by enviroment. The third question involves the relation of
intelligence to experiences. There are two main models that apply to this question.
One model is the biologicl model that implies intelligence is an evolving system.
The second is the siciological model, this model views inteligence as an internalization
of social processes. Sternberg concludes that a theory of intelligence should
answer all three of the questions at once. The first attempt at doing this is
through a political model. This model depicts intelligence as mental self-government.
Intellgence can be viewd as a form of government; it evolves over time, requires
experiences that come from ones community. Sternberg does not doubt that this
wil be the final model. Models should be our servants rather than our masters.
Week 5 (NSTA 5, Due 2/19/03)
Title: Equity, Excellence, and Just Plain Good Teaching
Authors: April Gardner, Cheryl Mason, and Marsha Matyas
Source: The American Biology Teacher, V.51 No.2; February 1989
Review: This article is mainly about getting not only female students to become
more active in the science world but also minority groups. The authors identify
teaching strategies that can be implemented to encourage groups that are usually
left behind in science and mathematics to be involved. The first is to try to
rid ourselves as teachers of any biases we may have. This involves holding high
expectations of all students, not allowing students to just get by with out
participating, and providing equal encouragement to all to take higher science
and math classes. The second strategy involves hands on learning. Typically,
females in the classroom don’t participate much in labs and other activities
of the sort. To combat this we as teachers must encourage females to get involved
in science extra-curricular activities. Also another way to do this is to ask
female students to set up equipment and during lab experiments pair female students
together. The third strategy is to have students work in small groups. “Cooperative
small group work is a more effective strategy both for achievement and motivation,
especially for female students.” Students of both gender and of all ethnicities
have more chances to participate, to gain “hands-on” skills and
increase their confidence. Other ideas for use in the classroom are to relate
the topics to the students’ everyday life, include career information,
and give examples of people that can be seen as role models.
Week 6 (NSTA 6, Due 2/26/03)
Title: Integrating Tech Prep into Science Teacher Preparation
Author: Steven Gilbert
Source: School Science and Mathematics V.97(4) pg 206-211 April 1997
Review: This article is about the educational reform known as Tech Prep. This
is a sequence of study that begins in high school and leads directly to the
working world or an associates degree in a two year college. The classes that
this article describes as being tech prep actually sound very much like how
we are learning to teach. The classes in the program focus on context-based
teaching and competency development. They are designed to prepare students for
life after high school whether that involves directly going to work or to college.
“Tech prep programs are hybrids integrating the acedemic competencies
of college prep with the practical skills of vocational programs.” There
are limited results from studies, however thus far students in Principles of
Technology, a Physics based class scored higher than on the same test than students
of the traditional Physics class. The problem of the tech prep program is the
“lack of occupational knowledge, skill and motivation on the part of the
teachers.” The only way suggested by the author to correct this problem
requires changes in the way education is organized at the university level.
Week 7 (NSTA 7) Due 3/05/03
Title: But That’s Just Good Teaching! The Case for Culturally Relevant
Pedagogy
Author: Gloria Ladson-Billings
Source: Theory Into Practice V. 34(3) Summer 1995 Ohio State Univ.
Review: The purpose of this article is to describe a culturally relevant pedagogy.
Culturally relevant pedagogy rests on three main points. The first is students
must experience academic success; “culturally relevant teaching requires
that teachers attend to students’ academic needs, not merely make them
feel good.” The second is that students must develop or maintain competency
in their culture. Culturally relevant teachers use a student’s culture
as a tool for learning. One teacher created a program that allowed the students
to learn from others parents, which also provided cultural knowledge. The third
point states that students must develop a “critical consciousness through
which they challenge the status quo of the current social order.” Students
should develop a sociopolitical consciousness that will allow them to evaluate
cultural norms, values, mores, and institutions that produce and maintain social
inequities. “If a school is about preparing students for active citizenship,
what better citizenship tool than the ability to critically analyze society?”
Week 8 (NSTA 8) Due 3/19/03
Title: Extra Credit, Extra Science
Author: John R. Cannon
Source: Science and Children V. 43(1) September 1996
Review: The purpose of this article was to tell of a suggestion to increase
scientific literacy of students in elementary science methods classes. Extra
credit activities seemed to work well for the teacher of this class. It got
all of the students involved, whether they needed the extra points or not. Most
of the activities performed were appropriate for use in the elementary school
level. One of the most important aspects of the extra credit system was that
it helped to identify misconceptions of science. Another important finding was
that the student teachers found many resources available for finding science
information. The use of the extra credit science method “combines information
retrieval and pedagogy, while modeling contemporary teaching strategies.”
Title: Making Science Special Students, Special Needs
Author: Jeffery D. Weld
Source: The Science Teacher November 1990
Review: This article is about accommodating students with disabilities in a
science classroom. “Science more than any other subject needs to be accessible
to students with disabilities, for it is the study of problem solving using
the scientific method.” Teaching disabled students the scientific method
provides them with the tools needed to live in a non-disabled world. In the
classroom an instructor must be able to adapt the classroom to the needs of
students. A teacher has the greatest impact on the success of a mainstreamed
student. A pre-course meeting can help all students know that you are interested,
concerned, and willing to take extra time to help if necessary; this is especially
beneficial to the mainstreamed student. This can also benefit the teacher. Parental
input is also a huge help when it comes to setting goals and expectations for
disabled students.
Week 10 (NSTA 10) Due 4/02/03
Title: Can Teachers be Trusted to Improve Teaching
Author: Dale Mann
Source: Phi Delta Kappan V. 77(1) September 1995
Review: This article describes a program called IMPACT II. This program works
to bring teachers with “good” ideas for the classroom together and
connect them to other teachers. The people involved in IMPACT II believe that
teachers are the source of reform ideas for school systems, where as the response
of policy makers has been to push teachers harder and not trust what they think.
All of the teachers that participate in the program have an unusual dedication
to self-improvement and the teaching profession. “The outcomes from IMPACT
II come from something simple but hard to find in the current reform scene.
That something is trust.”
Week 11-14 (Others) Due 4/09/03 + 4/16/03 + 4/23/03 + 4/30/03 etc.
Movie Review: Kindergarten Cop
Analysis: Kindergarten Cop is about a police officer who must go undercover
as a teacher. The cop John Kimble, played by Arnold Swartzenegar, is after a
killer who is looking for his son and ex-wife. Kimble must go undercover as
a teacher in order to protect the child and catch the killer.
There is a major problem with his mission; the only picture of the child is
from when he was a baby. Kimble has no clue which child in the class is the
one is supposed to protect. Eventually he is able to find out which child he
is looking for and protect him and his mother who he ends up falling for.
At first when Kimble first takes charge of the class it is utter chaos. As the
movie progresses he is able to take charge of the classroom and gain some respect,
which is impressive when dealing with kindergarteners. At the beginning of the
movie he did not seem to care for the students at all, he was just there to
do a job. Towards the end he seemed to genuinely care about their well being,
for example when he went after the father of the kid who was being beaten at
home. Granted that was not the way to handle that situation, but it did show
that he cared very much. Genuinely caring about students I think is a major
necessity of teachers. If they don’t truly care, they shouldn’t
be teachers.
Movie Review: Finding Forrester
Analysis: Jamal a somewhat poor student from the Bronx is asked to attend a
prestigious private school based on excellent test scores and amazing performances
on the basketball court. Unknown to his friends and the school he is a gifted
writer. One day on a dare from his friends, Jamal enters the apartment of William
Forrester, a well renowned author, who is a mystery to them. He is never seen
outside and sometimes watches Jamal and his friends through the window. Jamal
is frightened away by William and forgets his book bag in the apartment. Jamal
gets his book bag back to find critiques all over his writings.
Jamal goes back to the apartment to ask for help from William on his writing
abilities. William is able to unlock Jamal’s abilities by simply providing
him with a starting point. William resembles the making of a great teacher.
He does not teach, he provides a beginning and lets the student take it from
there.
There is another aspect of this movie that needs to be addressed. Jamal’s
English teacher at this so called prestigious school is the perfect embodiment
of a biased teacher. Because of Jamal’s background he does not believe
that Jamal is capable of such impressive writing, even though at one point in
the movie he shows up the teacher by answering all of his questions correctly.
In reward for doing this Jamal is kicked out of class. This is a good example
of bad teaching at its finest. Teachers must remember that just because a student
has a bad background, it doesn’t mean that the student is also “bad.”
Date: February 17, 2003
Title: Achieving Scientific Literacy Through a Curriculum Connected with Mathematics
and Technology
Author: Hamm, M.
Source: School Science and Mathematics, Vol. 92, No. 1, 1992, 6-9.
Review: This article discussed the scientific literacy of today’s American
students, which tend to rank in the lower half of academic surveys of the top
15-17 countries. In general, American adults perform poorly on basic science
terminology tests, with less than fifty percent knowing the Earth revolves and
rotates around the Sun and confusing astronomy with astrology. The National
Council on Science and Technology Education developed an outline for defining
a scientifically literate person. Such standards include an understanding of
the important concepts and principles of science, has a capacity for scientific
ways of thinking, and so on. This doesn’t mean that they need have to
know details regarding every aspect of science, but they should be aware of
the basics and how each area of science and technology relate to each other.
When school science programs are examined, it was shown that students seem to
have an increased negative attitude about science and math through their schooling.
The author then provides suggestions about what can be done to improve the curriculum,
such as improving the teaching of science, mathematics, and technology by providing
more hands-on experience. Attend to the importance of students in the learning
process by assisting their learning and not telling the answer verbatim. Incorporate
innovative and alternative teaching and learning strategies by mixing in the
problem-solving and lectures with group work and discovery learning. Teachers
must try to develop new curriculum models and extend learning beyond the classroom
because not everything about a subject can be taught in one school year, so
certain materials can be covered in other classes and let students learn some
things on their own.
Week 2 (NSTA 2, Due 1/29/03)
Date: February 17, 2003
Title: The Effect of Teachers’ Language on Students’ Conceptions
of the Nature of Science
Author: Lederman, N.G. &Zeidler, D.L.
Source: Journal of Research in Science Teaching, Vol. 26, No. 9, 1989, 771-783.
Review: This article regarded a study conducted about the conception of the
nature of science for students and whether the language teachers use when lecturing
has an effect on the level of understanding that student come away with. The
authors felt that when teachers use ordinary language, students will come to
understand the content of the material better. They felt that there tended to
be the most difficulty concerning the difference in qualitative and quantitative
data and scientific descriptions of concepts. Separated into two groups are
the Realists, who lean towards basic definitions and meanings, and the Instrumentalists,
who prefer scientific terminology. In this study, 18 teachers were observed
during the fall semester, evaluating one class per teacher three times on six
variables consisting of testable, developmental, arbitrary constructs/models,
anthropomorphic language, creative, and objective/subjective. After data was
collected and analyzed, a clear relationship was found between teachers’
language and students comprehension. Teachers who tended towards the Realist
perspective, using plain language to communicate science content provided the
students with the context to frame their own ideas of the nature of science.
Week 3 (NSTA 3, Due 2/05/03)
Date: February 19, 2003
Title: Dialectical Constraints to the Discursive Practices of a High School
Physics Community
Author: Tobin, K., McRobbie, C. & Anderson, D.
Source: Journal of Research in Science Teaching, Vol. 35, No. 5, 1997, 491-507.
Review: This study is monitoring a teacher in a High School Physics class over
a period two years and watching his teaching practices and observing how he
tries to obtain his ideal classroom environment. The physics classroom is an
ever evolving community where there needs to be a consistently changing mixture
of discussion, experiments, writing, and overall cognition. The teacher feels
that “beliefs are sometimes naturalized and regarded as common sense”
and students do not really grasp what the material is covering and explaining
about the world. Language is a key component, being that if a student doesn’t
understand what the teacher is saying in scientific terminology, the student
would get lost in the language and loose the concept they are supposed to understand.
The authors give an example of a lesson vignette that they feel keeps the students
away from an understanding of why the physics works, but the students come away
with an understanding of how it is applied. If a teacher focuses too much on
formulas, terms, numbers, and calculations and does not discuss what is behind
the material, the student will be able to work out the numbers but most likely
won’t be able to apply the concepts to other situations. The teacher in
the observation had been teaching for three years prior to the two year study,
with his goal being to implement the curriculum with a greater autonomy for
the students. He had them doing student-centered work, such as presentations
of problems that he gave a group of students to solve involving many Physics
concepts. After the two years, it was found that he hadn’t accomplished
his goal of a conducive student-centered learning environment. He had focused
on technical interests such as getting the right and most efficient answers
to problems with a great lack of conceptual explanation on his part, remarking
on occasion that “physics is weird sometimes”. I really didn’t
find the point of this study with the researchers adding in unimportant information
and having no clear conclusion to their article.
Week 4 (NSTA 4, Due 2/12/03)
Date: February 17, 2003
Title: The Effect of Method and Format on the Responses of Subjects to a Piagetian
Reasoning Problem
Author: Staver, J.R. & Pascarella, E.T.
Source: Journal of Research in Science Teaching, Vol. 21, No. 3, 1984, 305-314.
Review: This study was conducted to evaluate reasoning levels of students as
defined by Piaget regarding methods and formats of testing. The test that was
administered to a group of 376 science and engineering freshmen at UIC was the
Piaget “Mr. Tall, Mr. Short” proportional reasoning test. The test
was given in 16 types, consisting of 4 methods, individual clinical interview,
group presentation of task followed by paper-and-pencil problem with illustration,
group administration of paper-and-pencil instrument with illustration, and group
administration of paper-and-pencil instrument without illustration, with 4 formats
consisting of completion answer with essay justification, completion answer
with multiple-choice justification, multiple-choice answer with essay justification,
and multiple-choice answer with multiple-choice justification. With these 16
groups, this test showed neither format or method had a higher testing rate
or had influenced the students’ scores at all. I however feel that this
is unfair data in the fact that the questions they asked were more suited for
a fifth grade class than college freshmen. In some cases, the format or method
of tests is dictated by the material and in other cases students would feel
more comfortable with a certain test. I think that this data should have been
evaluated at a different level.
Week 5 (NSTA 5, Due 2/19/03)
Date: February 27, 2003
Title: Integrating Tech Prep into the Science Teacher Preparation
Author: Steven W. Gilbert
Source: School Science and Mathematics, Vol. 97(4), April, 1997, 206-211.
Review: This article discussed an Educational Reform movement called Tech prep,
which trains high school students for a more technical career field, because
that is what the job market requires now. They begin this coursework in their
junior and senior years of high school and continue it through at least a two-year
program for an associates degree or community college program. Right now, at
least 85% of the jobs in the service sector use computerized equipment and „one
out of every four new jobs in the near future going to skilled technical workers‰,
so this program prepare students for this because most high school programs
do not provide that higher level of applied skill. Through this program, they
will provide occupationally relevant coursework in addition to academic content
courses. They also describe a model for the Integration of Tech Prep into a
full school curriculum, by „encouraging a familiarity with phenomena and
problem-solving, creative positive attitudes, and develop a framework for understanding.
Week 6 (NSTA 6, Due 2/26/03)
Date: February 28, 2003
Title: A Qualitative Study of Middle School Students’ Perceptions of Factors
Facilitating the Learning of Science: Grounded Theory and Existing Theory
Author: Spector, B.S. & Gibson, C.W.
Source: Journal of Research in Science Teaching, Vol. 28(6), 1991, 467-484.
Review: South Florida has developed a summer program for high achieving middle
school students to learn science through discovery, hands-on learning. Groups
of 50-60 students go to University of Southern Florida and stay with 6-7 teachers
who would facilitate their learning for twelve days. This program is meant to
gain knowledge of student’s perceptions, as a way of enhancing the effectiveness
of middle school science teaching and to show students that learning doesn’t
mean sitting and reading a textbook. When surveyed for responses about the program,
students were asked to compare leaning in school to learning during the program.
Most of the student responses were that this program was unlike school in every
way and that they had so much fun they didn’t realize they learned anything
until it had happened. From this study of the program, helpful tools for students
learning science were experiencing the situations about what they were learning,
live presentations, doing hands-on activities, being active learners, having
adult mentors, establishing networks, and experiencing a sense of self-reliance.
Week 7 (NSTA 7) Due 3/05/03
Date: March 25, 2003
Title: But That’s Just Good Teaching! The Case for Culturally Relevant
Pedagogy
Author: Ladson-Billings, G.
Source: Theory into Practice, Vol. 34, No. 3, 1995, 159-165.
Review: This article discusses “culturally relevant” teaching and
learning, specifically dealing with how to better integrate African Americans
into schooling. The greatest challenge of teachers in this area is that African-American
students tend to feel unwelcome in school and are afraid to express themselves
academically. Culturally relevant pedagogy consists of three points; students
must experience academic success, develop and maintain cultural competence,
and develop a critical consciousness through which they challenge the status
quo of the current social order. To achieve these goals teachers must make sure
that all students academic needs are met and not just that they do well. One
way a few teachers are doing this is by integrating a student’s background,
family, and culture into the classroom. Bilingual students are encouraged to
work in their native language and then translate to English. One teacher had
each student have a family member or friend come for a 1-2 hour period for 2-4
days and show the class an area of expertise that they have. Students would
then do research and report on an area related to the topic. These are all excellent
steps that teachers can take to make students feel more comfortable in the classroom.
Week 8 (NSTA 8) Due 3/19/03
Zoë Paukstys
Date: March 25, 2003
Title: Extra Credit, Extra Science
Author: Cannon, J.R.
Source: Science and Children, September1996, 38-40.
Review: This article deals with the issue of extra credit issued by teachers
in science classes. In a survey reported by this article, only 63% of elementary
level students had sufficient comprehension on a scientific literacy test, with
the main deficit lying in definitions. A proposition considered by some teachers
is offering extra credit to students through a series of experiments. Even if
extra credit is not needed, all students are asked to watch a demonstration
done by the teacher and then fill in a Vee diagram with hypotheses on why this
experiment resulted the way it did. After students turn these in, the correct
answer is revealed and students who came up with an incorrect answer are asked
to watch the experiment again until they are able to modify their conclusion
to the correct one. Not only are students more willing to do this work because
of the tag of extra credit, they learn a lot from it because of the scientific
processes involved.
Zoë Paukstys
Electronic Journal #9
Date: March 25, 2003
Title: Making Science: Special Students, Special Needs
Author: Weld, J.D.
Source: The Science Teacher, November 1990, 34-38.
Review: This article discusses the issue of physically handicapped students
fully being able to participate in all lab activities in a science classroom.
The way that most schools are equipped now is not suitable for all types of
handicap. Sinks are too high, lab partners doing all the hands-on work, field
trips not being accessible; all are problems when it comes to fully involving
a class that has a handicapped student among them. Since many of these things
are out of any person’s control, there are other ways to adapt classes
to make it more disability friendly. The first point was that lesson plans can
be adapted to accommodate everyone, such as designing situations that allow
for success in a normal classroom. Have alternate assignments that convey the
same point, but are more disability friendly. Teachers can conduct pre-course
interviews with each of the students, to get to know what they are interested
in and it shows that the teachers are willing to do extra to help all students
out. Another item that I have found personally very helpful and that is also
mentioned in the article is computer assisted learning. This allows students
to explore the concepts that they might not normally be able to work on. It
is important to remember though, that the learning of the student needs to be
paired equally with the student’s potential and shortcomings.
Week 10 (NSTA 10) Due 4/02/03
Date: March 3, 2003
Title: Career Decisions of K-12 Science Teachers: Factors Influencing Their
Decisions and Perceptions Toward Science Teaching
Decisions and Perceptions Toward Science Teaching
Author: Mariona Espinet, Patricia Simmons & Mary A. Atwater
Source: School Science and Mathematics, Vol. 92(2), February 1992, 84-91.
Review: This article discusses a survey, titled the Science Teaching
Questionnaire, that was given out to 113 teachers that attended a particular
conference. The survey was in two parts, consisting of general demographic information
and a questionnaire designed to collect information about factors which may
have influenced a person's decision to become a science teacher. Of the teachers
who responded to the survey, 32.7% were males and 67.3% were females with 95.5%
being Caucasian. Almost half were Secondary science teachers, principally in
Biology and Chemistry, 29.2% were middle school, 9.7% were Elementary Ed. And
12.4% were pre-college. The largest percent of the male science teachers selected
their science teachers as the greatest influence to become a science teacher,
while females had said that their mothers were their greatest influence. The
questionnaire was split up into many more questions asking when they decided
to become a teacher, when did they first decided they liked science, and when
did they decide to enter science teaching. For the most part, these teachers
had decided either in college or after graduation and had gone back for a teaching
degree. As answers to why they entered science teaching, it was because teaching
is important and interesting, they like science and they like to help people.
The resulting find is that the majority of teachers view teaching as a career,
but say that it has limited advancement possibilities.
Week 11-14 (Others) Due 4/09/03 + 4/16/03 + 4/23/03 + 4/30/03 etc.
Movie Review #1
Finding Forrester
Jamal is a black teenager in the Bronx whose two loves are writing and basketball.
Everyone knows he’s great at basketball, but he hides his writing talent
from his friends. He and his friends play on a court where a mysterious man
known as “the Window” watches them from the apartment building across
the street. On a dare from his friends, Jamal enters the Window’s apartment
and is startled by the old man; he then runs off leaving his backpack containing
his journals. The old man returns them, edited, and Jamal returns to the apartment
to confront the critique that he receives for his writing. The old man turns
out to be William Forrester, a recluse who wrote the Great American Novel, Avalon
Landing, won the Pulitzer Prize for it, and then disappeared.
As this is happening socially, a prep school, officially interested in his test
scores, grants him a scholarship to attend this highly regarded school. At the
school he encounters a whole different world than he is used to and teachers,
especially Professor Crawford, his English professor, a failed writer who delights
in destroying the dreams of aspiring writers. As he excels in the classroom,
he is also excelling on the basketball court, causing notice and encouragement
from the school board but conflict between him and the captain of the basketball
team, who is another black student.
As the movie progresses, Jamal and Forrester become friends and Forrester teaches
Jamal about writing as Jamal helps him face the world again. They create an
agreement, that none of the writing done in the apartment will ever leave the
apartment and that Jamal can never question what Forrester has done with his
life after the novel. As Jamal’s writing improves, Professor Crawford
feels threatened and accuses Jamal of plagiarism because he doesn’t believe
that a black man from the Bronx would ever be able to write as well as he does.
Jamal had turned in a paper with the same title as a paper Forrester had published
years before and Crawford brings it up to the school board for review. Due to
the agreement, Jamal wouldn’t divulge the fact that he knows Forrester
and so he is threatened with expulsion.
As the movie concludes, Forrester comes out of seclusion to read a paper at
a writing contest that Jamal had written. This gets Jamal out of trouble with
the school and it frees Forrester from the chains he had himself wrapped in.
Soon after, Forrester dies from cancer and leaves Jamal with his second novel.
In this movie, there are really three teacher student relations, being Crawford
to Jamal, Forrester to Jamal, and Jamal to Forrester. Crawford to Jamal is not
a good relationship in any terms. Prof. Crawford does not support Jamal in his
writing or any of the other students; instead he looks down upon them, puts
them on the spot, and makes fun of them if they make a mistake. Crawford hated
the fact that his students were surpassing his own abilities, and then tried
to hold them back so they would not be able to achieve his own aspirations.
A good teacher should always be supportive of student’s abilities and
encourage them to do as well as they possible can.
The second relationship is between Forrester and Jamal, and this is what a teacher
student relationship should consist of. Forrester does not instruct Jamal on
how to be a good writer; instead he gives Jamal tips and just lets him write
what comes to mind. One of the best phrases to come out of this movie is “Don’t
think about what you are writing, just write what comes to mind”. Forrester
gives Jamal honest opinions of his writing, and this enables Jamal to go beyond
what he has been formally taught about writing in school and just write what
he feels. Forrester is supportive and encouraging and makes the whole learning
experience a joy to go through.
From the second relationship comes a third relationship where the student becomes
the teacher and the teacher becomes the student. Jamal helps Forrester remember
and realize all the exciting things there are in the world and encourage him
to step out and explore again. Forrester feels free to open himself up as a
writer again and to subject himself to the critique that Jamal has so willingly
accepted from him. The interactions between Jamal and Forrester on each end
make this a good teacher/student relationship.
Movie Review #2
Dead Poets Society
The Dead Poets Society is a movie based at a Vermont private boys’ school,
focusing on a relationship between one English class and their teacher and how
that teacher is able to open their minds to thoughts, ideas, and possibilities
each of the students never considered. John Keating is one of the main characters
who comes back to his old school as the teacher rather than the student to bring
enlightenment upon his students. Keating ignores conventional teaching procedures
and offers his students life-changing access to a brave new world of culture,
ideas, and creativity. The story then turns on how the boys are affected by
the counsel of the educator (whom they call "Captain," after Walt
Whitman's elegy of Abraham Lincoln). Through their teacher, these boys are able
to start to think for themselves and begin to do things that they have always
wanted to do. They also restart a club that Keating had belonged to as a student,
called the Dead Poets Society where they meet and read poetry and express themselves
through words.
Keating is the kind of teacher that every student wishes they have during school;
a grown-up kid that wants to be all that he can be, is wildly creative, and
can express himself in interesting ways. Keating butts heads with the administration
a lot during this movie because of his unconventional teaching methods that
the old professors are uncomfortable with. I found one conversation to be a
particularly good example of the rift between the old and new thinking. Keating
begins by saying “I always thought that the idea of education was to think
for yourself”. The old English teacher and current headmaster replies
“Tradition, discipline, prepare them for college and the rest will be
forgiven. The curriculum is set and proven; if you don’t question it,
why would they?”
Keating begins the year by having the students open their poetry books to the
introduction, read the article, and then rip it out because poetry is not about
method or meter, but about emotion and movement and he wanted them to see that.
He talks them out to the courtyard and has them walk around for a bit. All the
students soon fall into an rhythmic step with others clapping along to their
marching. Keating uses this to example conformity and how one person might choose
a particular step and soon everyone is following along and not walking for themselves.
Keating is able to earn the respect of his students and gets them to learn not
only English and poetry lessons, but life lessons that they will carry with
them.
Hard copy recieved? NO
Week 2 (NSTA 2, Due 1/29/03)
Hard Copy Received: NO
Week 3 (NSTA 3, Due 2/05/03)
Hard Copy Received: NO
Week 4 (NSTA 4, Due 2/12/03)
Hard Copy Received: NO
Week 5 (NSTA 5, Due 2/19/03)
Hard Copy Received: NO
Week 6 (NSTA 6, Due 2/26/03)
Hard Copy Received: NO
Week 7 (NSTA 7) Due 3/05/03
Hard Copy Received: NO
Week 8 (NSTA 8) Due 3/19/03
Hard Copy Received: NO
Hard Copy Received: NO
Week 10 (NSTA 10) Due 4/02/03
Hard Copy Received: NO
Week 11-14 (Others) Due 4/09/03 + 4/16/03 + 4/23/03 + 4/30/03 etc.
Hard Copy Received: As appropriate